CHAPTER XV. Arachnida Embolobranchiata (_continued_)—Araneae (_continued_)—

ARACHNIDA EMBOLOBRANCHIATA (CONTINUED)—ARANEAE (CONTINUED)— CLASSIFICATION

The systematic study of Spiders has hitherto presented very great difficulties. There is an extensive literature on the subject, but the more important works are costly, not commonly to be found in libraries, and written in diverse languages. Moreover, the nomenclature is only now emerging from a condition of chaos. Able and diligent Arachnologists have done admirable work in studying and describing the Spider fauna of their various countries, and occasional tentative suggestions have been put forth with a view to reducing to some sort of order the vast mass of heterogeneous material thus collected. Most schemes of classification, based chiefly upon a knowledge of European forms, have proved quite inadequate for the reception of the vast numbers of strange exotic species with which recent years have made us acquainted. The number of described species is very large, and is rapidly increasing; but though we are very far indeed from anything like an exhaustive knowledge of existing forms, it may now be said that almost every considerable area of the earth’s surface is at least partially represented in the cabinets of collectors, and it is possible to take a comprehensive view of the whole Spider fauna, and to suggest a scheme of classification very much less likely than heretofore to be fundamentally deranged by new discoveries.

The first to apply the Linnaean nomenclature to Spiders was Clerck, in his Araneae Suecicae (1757), which gives an account of seventy spiders, some of which are varieties of the same species. A few new species were added by Linnaeus, De Geer, Scopoli, Fabricius, etc., but the next work of real importance was that of Westring (1861), who, under the same title, described 308 species, divided among six families. Blackwall’s beautiful work, the Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland, was published by the Ray Society in 1864. He divides spiders into three tribes, Octonoculina, Senoculina, and Binoculina, according to the number of the eyes, and describes 304 British species, distributed among eleven families.

His successor in this country has been Pickard-Cambridge, whose work, under the modest title of The Spiders of Dorset (1879–81), is indispensable to British collectors.

Blackwall’s division of the order into tribes was evidently artificial, and has not been followed by later Arachnologists. Dufour (1820) founded two sub-orders, Dipneumones and Tetrapneumones, based on the presence of two or four pulmonary sacs. Latreille (1825) established, and many Arachnologists adopted, a division into tribes based upon habits, Orbitelariae, Retitelariae, Citigradae, Latigradae, etc., and this method of classification was followed in the important work of Menge, entitled Preussische Spinnen, which was published between 1866 and 1874.

Since 1870 determined efforts have been made to grapple with the difficult subject of Spider classification, notably by Thorell and Simon. The latter, undoubtedly the foremost living Arachnologist, writes with especial authority, and it is inevitable that he should be largely followed by students of Arachnology, who cannot pretend to anything like the same width of outlook.

It is indicative of the transition stage through which the subject is passing that Simon in his two most important works, propounds somewhat different schemes of classification, while in the Histoire naturelle, where his latest views are to be found, he introduces in the course of the work quite considerable modifications of the scheme set forth in the first volume.

In that work the order is divided into two sub-orders, ARANEAE THERAPHOSAE and ARANEAE VERAE, the first sub-order containing Liphistius and the Mygalidae or Theraphosidae of other authors, while all other spiders fall under the second sub-order. The Araneae verae are subdivided into CRIBELLATAE and ECRIBELLATAE, according to the presence or absence of “cribellum” and “calamistrum” (see p. 326) in the female. Important as these organs doubtless are, the Cribellatae do not appear to form a natural group, some of the families having apparently much closer affinities with certain of the Ecribellatae than with one another. This is especially evident in the case of the cribellate Oecobiidae and the ecribellate Urocteidae (see p. 392), which most authors unite in a single family.

After all, the larger divisions of the order are not of great importance, and in the present chapter Simon’s linear arrangement of families will in the main be followed, except for the distribution of the eight families which constitute his Cribellatae to the positions which a more general view of their structure would seem to indicate.

=Fam. 1. Liphistiidae.=—Spiders with segmented abdomen, as shown by the presence of a series of tergal plates. Eight spinnerets in the middle of the ventral surface of the abdomen, far removed from the anal tubercle. Sternum long and narrow. Eight compact eyes on a small eminence. Four pulmonary stigmata.

FIG. 201.—Profile (nat. size) and ocular area (enlarged) of Liphistius desultor. ]

This Family includes a single genus and two species of large spiders (about two inches in length), one from Penang and one from Sumatra. Very few examples have been found, and these are more or less defective and in bad condition. In some respects, especially the distinct segmentation of the abdomen, this genus much more nearly approaches the Pedipalpi than do any others of the order. No other spider possesses more than six spinning mammillae, but it is possible that eight was the more primitive number, and that the “cribellum” (see p. 326) of the so-called Cribellate spiders is derived from the pair now possessed by Liphistius alone.

Some Arachnologists consider the genus Liphistius so different from all other spiders as to constitute in itself a sub-order, for which, on account of the position of its spinnerets, the name MESOTHELAE has been suggested, all other forms falling into the sub-order OPISTHOTHELAE.

=Fam. 2. Aviculariidae. (Mygalidae).=—Spiders with independent chelicerae, the paturon directed forward and the unguis or fang articulating in a vertical plane. The eyes are eight (except Masteria, six), usually compact, and situated on an eminence. Pedipalpi very leg-like, and palpal organs of male simple. No maxillae. Four pulmonary stigmata. Spinnerets normally four. No colulus.

The Aviculariidae inhabit the warmer portions of the world, and are entirely unrepresented in this country. The monster spiders which excite wonder in zoological collections belong to this group, as do the moderate-sized “Trap-door” Spiders which are found abundantly in the Mediterranean region.

The Family has been divided into about a hundred and fifty genera, nearly half of which, however, contain only a single species.

They have been grouped by Simon into seven sub-families, PARATROPIDINAE, ACTINOPODINAE, MIGINAE, CTENIZINAE, BARYCHELINAE, AVICULARIINAE, and DIPLURINAE, of which the first three may be dealt with very briefly.

(i.) The PARATROPIDINAE include only two American species, Paratropis scrupea from the Amazon, and Anisaspis bacillifera from St. Vincent. They have thick, rugose integuments, and the internal angle of the coxa of the pedipalp is produced. The labium is fused with the sternum, which is very broad. Nothing is known of their habits, but as they do not possess a “rastellus” (see p. 320) they are probably not burrowing spiders.

(ii.) The ACTINOPODINAE comprise three genera, Stasinopus represented by a single South African species, S. caffrus; Eriodon, of which about ten species inhabit Australia; and Actinopus, of which about ten species are found in Central and South America. They have the coxae of the pedipalps very short and broad, and somewhat produced at the internal angle. The eyes are not in the usual compact group, but are somewhat extended across the caput. Actinopus burrows a deep cylindrical hole lined with silk, and furnished with a round, bevelled trap-door.

(iii.) The sub-family MIGINAE is established for the reception of three genera, Moggridgea (South Africa), Migas (Australia and South-West Africa), and Myrtale, whose single species, M. perroti, inhabits Madagascar. They are chiefly characterised by their very short and downwardly-directed chelicerae. They are not terricolous, but inhabit trees, either boring holes in the bark, or constructing a sort of silken retreat fortified by particles of wood.

(iv.) The CTENIZINAE form a large group, including some forty genera. All the “Trap-door” Spiders of the Continent fall under this sub-family, which, moreover, has representatives in all the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. A rastellus is always present, and the eyes form a compact group on an eminence. The coxae of the pedipalps are longer than in the groups previously mentioned, and there is no production of the internal angle. The labium is generally free.

The commonest European genus is Nemesia, of which about thirty species inhabit the Mediterranean region. The cephalothorax is rather flat, and the central fovea is recurved (◠). The burrow is sometimes simple and sometimes branched, and the trap-door may be either thin, or thick with bevelled edges.

Allied genera are Hermacha and Rachias in South America, Spiroctenus in South Africa, Genysa in Madagascar, Scalidognathus in Ceylon, and Arbanitis in New Zealand. The genus Cteniza (fovea procurved ◡) possesses only a single species (C. sauvagei), found in South-East France and Italy.

Pachylomerus is a widely-distributed genus, being represented in North and South America, Japan, and North Africa. The tibiae of the third pair of legs are marked above by a deep impression near the base. A closely allied genus, Conothele. inhabits Southern Asia and New Guinea.

The widely-distributed genus Acanthodon, which has representatives in all the sub-tropical countries of the world, together with the South American genera Idiops and Pseudidiops, and the Indian genus Heligmonerus, present a peculiar arrangement of the eyes, one pair being situated close together in the middle of the front of the caput, while the remaining six form a more or less compact group some distance behind them.

Among the many other genera of the Ctenizinae may be mentioned Cyrtauchenius, of which many species inhabit North-West Africa, and its close ally Amblyocarenum, represented on both shores of the Mediterranean, and in North and South America. They differ from Cteniza chiefly in the possession of strong scopulae on the tarsi and metatarsi of the first pair of legs, and in the double row of teeth with which the tarsal claws are furnished. Their burrows are often surmounted by a sort of turret raised above the level of the ground.

(v.) The BARYCHELINAE are burrowing forms which resemble Nemesia, but have only two tarsal claws. Leptopelma is the only European genus, and has close affinities with certain South American genera (Psalistops, Euthycoelus, etc.). Pisenor inhabits tropical Africa, and Diplothele, unique in possessing only two spinning mammillae, is an inhabitant of India.

(vi.) The AVICULARIINAE include all the large hairy spiders which are commonly called Mygale. The genus Phlogius, which inhabits Southern Asia, forms a lidless burrow, though it has no rastellus, but practically all the other members of the group are non-terricolous, living under stones or in holes in trees, where they weave a slight web. They are nocturnal in their habits. They all possess two tarsal claws, and the labium is free and spined at the tip. Of the four spinnerets the posterior pair are long and three-jointed, while the anterior are short and not very close together.

The particular form of the tarsi and the nature of the scopulae, “claw-tufts,” and spines upon them are of great importance in distinguishing the members of this group.

The Aviculariinae comprise about sixty genera from all the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world.

The genus Ischnocolus extends into the Mediterranean region, having representatives besides in Southern Asia and in Central and South America. All the tarsi have their scopulae divided longitudinally by a band of hairs. Chaetopelma inhabits Egypt, Syria, and Arabia, and Cyclosternum is found in West Africa as well as in Central and South America. In these genera the scopulae of the last two pairs of legs are alone divided. The largest known spider is Theraphosa leblondi, which is a native of Guiana. It measures 9 cm. (about three and a half inches) in length.

Eurypelma is a genus of large spiders entirely confined to the New World, where it possesses many species. The genus Avicularia is also American, and includes a number of large long-haired spiders with short and very strong legs, on which the scopulae and claw-tufts are well developed. Its nearest allies in the Old World are the Indian genus Poecilotheria, and the West African genus Scodra. The stridulating spider figured on p. 328 belongs to this group, Chilobrachys being a genus from Ceylon.

FIG. 202.—Ischnothele dumicola, ♀ × 2. (After Pocock.) ]

(vii.) The DIPLURINAE are a very aberrant group, including some twenty genera of Aviculariidae, usually of medium size, and possessed, as a rule, of very long posterior spinnerets. They do not burrow or live in holes or under stones, but weave webs of close texture, much resembling those characteristic of the Agelenidae (see p. 415). The tarsal claws are three in number, and there are never any claw-tufts. The rastellus, of course, is absent.

Two genera have representatives in Europe, Brachythele inhabiting the East Mediterranean region (as well as many other parts of the world), while Macrothele is found in Spain as well as in the Malay Peninsula and New Zealand. Ischnothele dumicola is a native of Western India. Diplura is a South American genus. Trechona venosa, a large species remarkable for the orange bands which decorate its abdomen, is also a native of South America. The New Zealand genus Hexathele, and the genus Scotinoecus from Chili, possess six spinnerets. Masteria (Ovalan Island) and Accola (Philippines and South America) differ from the rest of the family in having only six eyes.

=Fam. 3. Atypidae.=—Spiders with anteriorly projecting and vertically articulating chelicerae, but with no trough on the paturon for the reception of the unguis, which is guarded when closed by a single row of teeth. The spinnerets are normally six, and the anal tubercle is above, and well removed from the posterior spinnerets.

FIG. 203.—Atypus affinis, ♀. ]

The Atypidae are a small family of six genera, rather closely related to the Aviculariidae, and by some Arachnologists incorporated with them. They may be regarded as the representatives of that family in sub-tropical and temperate regions. In form they are strongly built, with smooth integuments, and their legs are short and powerful. Of the twenty-four species hitherto described almost all belong to the northern hemisphere. Five are natives of Europe, and two are included in the English fauna. The best known is Atypus affinis, which has been found in several localities in the south of England, and which has occurred on the Devil’s Dyke, near Cambridge. The female measures about half an inch in length, the male being smaller. It burrows a deep cylindrical hole at the edge of a grassy or heathery bank and lines it with a loose tube of silk, which extends considerably beyond the orifice of the burrow, either lying flat on the ground, or raised up and attached to the neighbouring herbage. There is no lid, but the upper end of the tube is always found closed, whether by its elasticity or by the deliberate operation of the spider is not known. The animal is nocturnal in its habits. Another species, A. beckii, occurs very rarely in the south of England.

The genus Atypus has representatives in Central and South Europe, North Africa, Japan, Java, and North America. Of the other genera, Calommata inhabits Central and South-East Asia and Japan, Brachybothrium, Atypoides, and Hexura are peculiar to North America, while Mecicobothrium comprises a single species (M. thorelli) native to the Argentine.

=Fam. 4. Filistatidae.=—Cribellate Spiders of moderate size, usually brown or yellow in colour, with smooth integuments and somewhat long tapering legs. The eight eyes are compactly arranged, and the palpal organs of the male are of simple structure. The six spinnerets are short, the anterior pair being thick and separated. Two pulmonary sacs, with two minute tracheal stigmata close behind them and widely separate.

There is but one genus, Filistata, in this family. About fifteen species have been described, five of which inhabit the Mediterranean region. Three are found in America, and others inhabit Central Asia, the Philippines, and Australia. The genus is not represented in this country, but one species, F. testacea, has an extremely wide distribution in the Old World, while F. capitata extends throughout the American continent.

The calamistrum of the female is short, only occupying a portion of the metatarsus of the fourth leg. The cribellum is divided. These spiders weave a web of close texture, of an irregular tubular form.

=Fam. 5. Oecobiidae (Urocteidae).=—Two very remarkable genera constitute this family, Oecobius and Uroctea.

The species of Oecobius, about fifteen in number, are small spiders, inhabiting sub-tropical countries—and especially desert regions—and spinning a slight web under stones, or in holes in walls. The female possesses a small transverse cribellum, the two halves of which are widely separated. The calamistrum is but feebly developed. No example has occurred in this country, but nine species have been described in the Mediterranean region.

FIG. 204.—=A=, Oecobius maculatus, much enlarged; =B=, Uroctea durandi, slightly enlarged. (After Simon.) ]

The three species of Uroctea are rather large spiders, two being native to Africa, while the third inhabits China and Japan. They are ecribellate. These two genera very closely resemble each other, not only superficially, but in certain structural details—notably the remarkably developed and two-jointed anal tubercle—and their close affinity supplies the strongest argument against separating the spiders which possess cribellum and calamistrum into a group by themselves. In both genera the cephalothorax is very broad and rounded at the sides. The eight eyes are compactly arranged. The sternum is broad and heart-shaped. The legs are nearly of equal length, and the posterior spinnerets have very long terminal joints.

=Fam. 6. Sicariidae (Scytodidae).=—The Sicariidae are a small group of six-eyed spiders, usually with weak legs and slow halting movements; they live under stones or in outhouses. The cephalothorax is generally smooth and devoid of the median fovea, and the palpal organs of the male are extremely simple. The best known genus is Scytodes, one species of which (S. thoracica) has on rare occasions been found in outhouses in the south of England, in Dorsetshire, and Kent. This is a remarkable spider, about one-third of an inch long, with a pale yellow ground-colour, marked with black spots and patches. The cephalothorax is smooth and dome-shaped, and highest near the posterior end.

All the other members of the family are exotic. Loxosceles is found in the Mediterranean region and all over America, as well as in Japan. The median fovea is present in this genus. Sicarius is a native of America and South Africa. It is of stouter build than Scytodes, and the legs are stronger. Drymusa belongs to South Africa. The peculiar New Zealand species Periegops hirsutus is placed by Simon in this family, as is also the North American genus Plectreurys, notwithstanding its possession of eight eyes.

=Fam. 7. Hypochilidae.=—Two species only are included in this family, Hypochilus thorelli of North America, and Ectatosticta davidi, a native of China. They have four pulmonary sacs, though they possess little else in common with the “Theraphosae.” The pedipalpus of the male is very remarkable, the tarsus being almost unmodified, and the very small palpal organ being inserted at its extremity. These spiders are cribellate.

=Fam. 8. Leptonetidae.=—The Leptonetidae are small spiders with smooth and usually dull-coloured integuments. Most of them are cave-living, but some are found amidst vegetable débris in damp spots in forests. The eyes are six in number, and the legs are generally long and thin. There are five genera. Leptoneta has about ten species living in caves in the Pyrenees. The single species of Telema (T. tenella) has the same habitat. Ochyrocera has representatives in tropical Asia and America, and is somewhat more ornate than most members of the group. Usofila has a single species, inhabiting North America, while Theotina is found in caves in the Philippines and in Venezuela.

=Fam. 9. Oonopidae.=—The Oonopidae are very small spiders, seldom exceeding 2 mm. in length (the largest 4 mm.), living among vegetable débris. Oonops pulcher, the only English representative of the family, is not rare under stones or in the débris at the bottom of hedges. It is a small brick-red spider, easily recognised by its six comparatively large oval eyes, which are pale-coloured, and occupy the whole of the caput.

The minute spiders of this family were until recently overlooked by collectors in foreign countries, but now more than a hundred species have been described, belonging to some eighteen genera. Thirteen species inhabit the Mediterranean region, occurring especially on the African side. In several genera there is a “scutum” or hard plate on the abdomen. This is the case with Dysderina, which has a wide distribution, as have also Ischnyothyreus and Opopaea, and the non-scutate genus Orchestina.

=Fam. 10. Hadrotarsidae.=—This family contains only two species, Hadrotarsus babirusa from New Guinea, and Gmogala scarabeus from Sydney. In general appearance they resemble the scutate Oonopidae, but they have eight eyes, curiously arranged, two large, somewhat triangular eyes being situated near the middle of the cephalothorax, and two groups of three small eyes on either side of the front part of the caput. These spiders are very minute.

=Fam. 11. Dysderidae.=—Six-eyed spiders, with long free labium, and long maxillae provided with a well-developed scopula. The cephalothorax is rather flat, and the abdomen is oval or cylindrical, the integument being smooth and usually rather soft. The palpal organ of the male is of simple structure.

The Dysderidae are divided into two sub-families, DYSDERINAE and SEGESTRIINAE, for the most part confined to temperate regions.

(i.) The DYSDERINAE are easily recognised by a peculiarity of the sternum. Instead of being merely excavated along its border for the reception of the legs, its edge is folded round the coxae to meet the carapace, and thus forms a series of collars or sockets in which the limbs are articulated in perfect isolation from each other. These spiders vary considerably in size, and are generally of a somewhat uniform coloration, never marked with vivid patterns. There are eight genera of this sub-family, two of which are represented in England.

Dysdera cambridgii is not a rare spider under stones in rocky localities, such as the Isle of Portland, and occurs, though less commonly, all over the country in similar situations, and under the loose bark of trees. It is half an inch in length, with a chestnut-coloured cephalothorax and legs, and dull yellow abdomen. A closely allied species, D. crocota, also occurs more rarely.

Harpactes hombergii is common in vegetable débris and under decaying bark. It is about a quarter of an inch in length, of slender form, with black-brown cephalothorax and clay-coloured abdomen. The legs are yellowish and annulated. More than forty exotic species of Dysdera and twenty-four of Harpactes have been described. Another genus of the Dysderinae is Stalita, which comprises three species, inhabiting the caves of Dalmatia and Carniola.

(ii.) The SEGESTRIINAE include two genera, Segestria and Ariadna.

Segestria senoculata occurs in England in similar localities to those where Dysdera cambridgii is found. It is not much smaller than that spider, and has a dark brown cephalothorax and legs and a dull yellow abdomen, with a series of adder-like diamond-shaped black markings along the middle. Two other species have occurred on rare occasions in England, and twelve more are recorded from the various temperate regions of the world.

Ariadna is the only Dysderid genus which invades the tropical regions. It includes about twenty species.

=Fam. 12. Caponiidae.=—This is a small family of three genera and about twelve species, remarkable in having no pulmonary sacs but five tracheal stigmata, and in the peculiar arrangement of their six spinnerets, those which are ordinarily median being in the same transverse line with the anterior ones.

The single species of Caponia (C. natalensis) inhabits South Africa, while Caponina has two species in South America. These spiders are eight-eyed, but the two median posterior eyes are much the largest, and these alone are present in the remarkable genus Nops, of which several species inhabit South America and adjacent islands.

=Fam. 13. Prodidomidae.=—This small family includes about twenty species of minute spiders from sub-tropical regions. They are eight-eyed, with short smooth legs, terminated by two claws not dentated. The spinnerets are especially characteristic.

Prodidomus (Miltia) includes fifteen species from the Mediterranean region, Africa, and America. Zimris is an Asiatic genus. The single species of Eleleis (E. crinita) is from the Cape.

FIG. 205.—Drassid Spiders. 1. Drassus lapidosus. 2. Clubiona corticalis. 3. Zora spinimana. 4. Micaria pulicaria. ]

=Fam. 14. Drassidae.=—Elongate spiders with low cephalothorax. Legs usually rather long, strong, and tapering, terminated by two pectinate claws, armed with spines, and scopulate. The body is smooth or short haired and frequently unicolorous and sombre-coloured, seldom ornate. The eyes, normally eight, are in two transverse rows. The mouth-parts (labium and maxillae) are long. Spinnerets as a rule terminal, and visible from above.

This important family includes a large number of species from all parts of the world, fifty-six being natives of the British Isles. There are familiar examples in the brown or mouse-coloured spiders which scurry away when stones are raised, or when loose bark is pulled off a tree.

The family may be divided into seven sub-families, of which four, DRASSINAE, CLUBIONINAE, LIOCRANINAE, and MICARIINAE, are represented in this country.

(i.) The DRASSINAE include more than twenty genera, some of which possess numerous species and have a wide distribution. The following may be mentioned:—

Drassus contains twelve British species. The commonest is D. lapidosus, a large dull brown spider, more than half an inch in length, which lives beneath stones in all parts of the country. At least a hundred species of this genus have been described.

Melanophora (= Prosthesima) includes a large number of species. They are dark-coloured active spiders, many of them jet black and glossy. Seven are recorded from the British Isles, the average size being about a quarter of an inch. They are found under stones. A closely allied genus is Phaeocedus, whose single species (P. braccatus) has occurred, though very rarely, in the south of England. Gnaphosa has fifty-five species, of which twenty-eight are European, and four are British.

(ii.) The CLUBIONINAE have the anterior spinnerets closer together, and the eyes more extended across the caput than in the foregoing sub-family. Nearly thirty genera have been established, of which three claim special attention. Clubiona includes more than 100 species, chiefly inhabiting temperate regions. Fifteen are included in the British list. They are mostly unicolorous, and yellow or brown in colour, but a few (C. corticalis, C. compta, etc.) have a distinct pattern on the abdomen. Cheiracanthium is a large and widely spread genus, counting three English species. There are more than a hundred species of the genus Anyphaena, of which one only (A. accentuata) occurs in this country, where it is common upon bushes and trees in the south.

(iii.) The LIOCRANINAE include about twenty-four genera, of which Zora, Liocranum, Agroeca, and Micariosoma are sparingly represented in this country.

(iv.) The MICARIINAE are a remarkable group of Spiders containing numerous ant-like mimetic forms. Two species of Micaria alone are English, but that genus is abundantly represented on the Continent, where the species mount up to forty. They are mostly small, dark, shining spiders, which, though not particularly ant-like in form, recall those insects both by their appearance and movements. Some of the exotic genera, and particularly the South American genus Myrmecium, possess remarkable instances of mimetic resemblance to ants. Micaria pulicaria is a very pretty little spider, about a sixth of an inch in length, black, with iridescent hairs, and some white marks on the abdomen. It runs about in a very active ant-like fashion and does not object to the sunshine. It is fairly abundant in England.

=Fam. 15. Palpimanidae.=—This family includes a few genera of exotic spiders. They are especially characterised by the great development of their anterior legs, which are not much used for locomotion, but are frequently raised as the spider moves along, generally somewhat slowly, by means of the other three pairs. The best known genera are Metronax and Stenochilus from India, Huttonia from New Zealand, and Palpimanus from the Mediterranean region, Africa, and South Asia.

=Fam. 16. Eresidae.=—The Eresidae are a small family of cribellate spiders whose systematic position has been the subject of much discussion. In general appearance they resemble the Attidae (vide infra), but this resemblance is quite superficial. On the whole they seem more nearly allied to the following family than to any other. They are stoutly built, with thick, strong legs, and live either in the ground or on bushes, where they weave a close-textured web. One species, Eresus cinnaberinus, has occurred on rare occasions in the south of England, and the male, which is a third of an inch in length, is perhaps the most striking member of our Spider fauna, the abdomen being scarlet, with four (or sometimes six) black spots edged with white hairs. The cephalothorax is black, with red on the postero-lateral borders. The abdomen of the female is black.

=Fam. 17. Dictynidae.=—Cribellate spiders, with oval cephalothorax and broad convex caput, with the eyes, normally eight, ranged across it in two straight or slightly curved transverse rows. Basal joints of chelicerae long and strong, often bowed. Legs rather strong. Tarsi three-clawed and devoid of scopula.

The Dictynidae are sedentary spiders which weave a web of irregular strands, covered by the close weft which is the product of the cribellum. Some live under stones or in holes in walls, while others spin their webs in bushes or herbage. There are about sixteen genera, of which Dictyna and Amaurobius are the most important.

Nearly a hundred species of Dictyna have been described. They are small spiders, usually living in grass and herbage. Thirty species inhabit Europe and the neighbouring coast of Africa, and eight of these are natives of Britain. D. arundinacea is very abundant, especially in heather. It is about an eighth of an inch in length. D. uncinata is also often met with. Amaurobius, of which about eighty species are known, includes some species of much larger size. Three species are native to this country, A. ferox, A. similis, and A. fenestralis. A. ferox is a large and rather formidable-looking spider, more than half an inch in length, with powerful chelicerae. It is found under stones and bark, and in cellars and outhouses. A. similis is the commonest species in England, though A. fenestralis somewhat replaces it in the north. They are smaller than A. ferox, but are found in similar situations.

=Fam. 18. Psechridae.=—This is a small family of cribellate spiders, consisting only of two genera, Psechrus and Fecenia, and some eight species, all natives of Southern Asia and the adjacent islands. The two species of Psechrus are large spiders. They make large domed webs, which they stretch between trees or rocks, and beneath which they hang in an inverted position.

The calamistrum of these spiders is short, about half the length of the fourth metatarsus.

=Fam. 19. Zodariidae (Enyoidae).=—In this family are included a number of remarkable exotic spiders, most of them somewhat Drassid-like in appearance, but generally with three-clawed tarsi. The group appears to be a somewhat heterogeneous one, the twenty genera of which it consists presenting rather a wide range of characteristics.

Cydrela is an African genus of moderate sized spiders, containing five species of very curious habits. They scramble about and burrow in the sand, in which, according to Simon, they appear to swim, and their chief burrowing implements are their pedipalpi, which are specially modified, the tarsi in the female bristling with spines, and being armed with one or more terminal claws.

Laches (Lachesis) includes some larger pale-coloured spiders found in Egypt and Syria, under stones in very hot and dry localities.

FIG. 206.—Hermippus loricatus, ♂ × 2½. (After Simon.) ]

Storena has representatives in all the tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world, and numbers about fifty species. They are of moderate size, with integuments smooth and glossy or finely shagreened, usually dark-coloured, with white or yellow spots on the abdomen. Hermippus (Fig. 206) is also African. Zodarion (Enyo) includes about thirty-five species of rather small, generally unicolorous spiders, very active and fond of the sunshine. They spin no web, but have a retreat under a stone. Their chief prey appear to be ants. Most of the species are native to the Mediterranean region, the others belonging to Central and Southern Asia.

Simon includes in this family the remarkable genus Cryptothele, found in Ceylon, Malacca, New Guinea, and various Oceanic islands. They are moderate sized brownish spiders, with hard integuments rugged with tubercles and projections. Their most curious characteristic is their power of retracting their spinnerets within a sort of sheath, so that they become entirely invisible.

FIG. 207.—Hersilia caudata, ♀. (After Pickard-Cambridge.) ]

=Fam. 20. Hersiliidae.=—This is a very distinct family of spiders, with broad cephalothorax, with well-marked fovea and striae, and small, well defined caput. The eyes, usually eight, are black except the median anterior pair. The legs are long and thin, and the tarsi three-clawed. The abdomen is oval or sub-globular, short haired, and generally of greyish coloration. The spinnerets supply the chief characteristic, the posterior pair being long—often excessively long—and two-jointed, the terminal joint tapering and flexible. The colulus is large. They are very active spiders, living on tree trunks or walls, or under stones, but spreading no snare. Some of them are of considerable size.

Hersilia includes nine species native to Africa and Asia. Tama is the only genus represented in the New World, two of its species being found in South America, while others inhabit Africa, Asia, and Australia. Another genus, Hersiliola, is principally African, but extends into Spain.

=Fam. 21. Pholcidae.=—This is another very well-marked family. The most striking peculiarity of its members is the possession of extremely long and thin legs, the metatarsi being especially elongated, and the tarsi furnished with several false articulations.

The eyes are also very characteristic. They are usually eight in number, the two anterior median eyes being black, while the other six are white, and arranged in lateral groups of three, sometimes on prominences or stalks. The abdomen is sometimes nearly globular, but more often long and cylindrical. Most of the genera, which, including several new genera lately established by Simon, number more than twenty, are poor in species, but enjoy a very wide distribution. This is explained by the fact that many of them live in cellars and outhouses. This is the case with the genus Pholcus, of which the sole English species Ph. phalangioides is a perfect nuisance in buildings in the most southern parts of the country, “spinning large sheets of irregular webs in the corners and angles, and adding to them year by year.” Other genera are Artema (Africa, South Asia, Polynesia, America), which includes the largest examples, and Spermophora, a six-eyed genus whose few species are widely distributed.

=Fam. 22. Theridiidae.=—Sedentary spiders, usually with feeble chelicerae and relatively large abdomen. Snare irregular.

The Theridiidae, as here understood, are a very extensive family, and more than half the British spiders (about 270 species) are included within it. This family and the next present unusual difficulties of treatment, and there is great divergence of opinion as to the most satisfactory way of dealing with them. This is chiefly due to the fact that, notwithstanding an infinite variation of facies, important points of structure are wonderfully uniform throughout both the two groups, while any differences that do occur are bridged over by intermediate forms which merge into each other.

Simon has become so impressed with the difficulty of drawing any clear line between certain groups which he previously classed under the Theridiidae and the spiders commonly known as Epeiridae, that he has recently removed them from the Theridiidae and united them with the orb-weaving spiders to form the Family Argiopidae, the family name Epeiridae being discarded. The groups which, in his view, belong to the Argiopidae will be indicated below. This view has not met with universal acceptance, and notwithstanding the undoubted difficulty of clearly distinguishing between the two families, it is more convenient in the present work to maintain as a separate family a group of spiders nearly all of whose members possess the easily recognised characteristic of spinning a circular snare.

The Theridiidae and the Epeiridae form the great bulk of the sedentary spiders. They do not wander in search of prey, but sit in snares of various structure and wait for their victims to entangle themselves. The spinnerets, organs whose peculiarities are often strongly marked in other families, are here wonderfully constant in their arrangement and general appearance, forming a compact rosette-like group beneath the abdomen. Their eyes, normally eight in number, present an infinite variety of arrangement. Their chelicerae and mouth-parts vary considerably, but no abruptness of variation is distinguishable. This is unsatisfactory from a systematic point of view, and the necessary result is that certain groups might with equal propriety be classed with the Theridiidae or the Epeiridae. The latter family will here be taken as including all the orb-weaving spiders and a few groups which appear inseparable from them.

We shall consider the Theridiidae as comprising the seven sub-families, ARGYRODINAE, EPISININAE, THERIDIONINAE, PHORONCIDIINAE, ERIGONINAE, FORMICINAE, and LINYPHIINAE, and shall briefly deal with them in this order.

(i.) The ARGYRODINAE are very curious spiders with very long and often flexible abdomen. They are commonly parasitic on the circular snares of Epeirid spiders, between the rays of which they spin their own irregular webs. There are three genera, Argyrodes, Ariamnes, and Rhomphaea, which are distributed in the tropical and sub-tropical regions all over the world.

(ii.) The EPISININAE hardly conform to the character of sedentary spiders, being frequently found outside their webs. In most species the abdomen is narrow in front and broader behind, where it is abruptly truncated or bluntly pointed. The genus Episinus is widely distributed, and one species, E. truncatus, is one of our most peculiar English spiders. It occurs occasionally under ledges of grassy or heathery banks. The genus Tomoxena is an inhabitant of tropical Asia. Janulus is found in the same regions, and in tropical America.

(iii.) The THERIDIONINAE are a large group of spiders, often very ornate, and spinning snares of irregular threads running in all directions. The abdomen is usually more or less globular. The chelicerae are small and weak, and the paturon is transversely (not obliquely) truncated for the reception of the small unguis or fang. The somewhat long thin legs are almost or entirely destitute of spines.

We may consider certain genera as typical of the various groups into which this sub-family naturally falls. Theridion is the richest genus of the entire order, numbering some 320 species, of which seventeen inhabit the British Isles. During the summer months nearly every bush is studded with the irregular webs of these little spiders, generally prettily coloured, and with globular abdomen. The commonest is T. sisyphium, which swarms on hollies and other bushes all over the country. One of the handsomest is T. formosum, a rather local species, about a sixth of an inch in length, with the abdomen beautifully marked with oblique lines of white, yellow, red, and black. T. tepidariorum, common in conservatories, is like a large and plainer edition of T. formosum. T. riparium is remarkable for the curious earth-encrusted tube which it forms for the reception of its egg-cocoon. T. bimaculatum may often be seen among coarse herbage, holding on to its ridiculously large egg-cocoon; it is a small spider, and the sexes are more than usually unlike.

Latrodectus and Dipoena are associated exotic genera, including some of the largest species of the group. Latrodectus is peculiarly interesting on account of the great reputation for especially poisonous properties which some of its species have acquired. The New Zealand “Katipo” is L. scelio, while L. 13–guttatus enjoys an almost equally evil reputation as the “malmignatte” in Corsica. The American species L. mactans (Fig. 197, p. 362) is also considered highly venomous. These spiders form their irregular webs on low bushes, and it is curious that they are usually marked with red or yellow spots on the abdomen. They have been referred to in the section on the venom of spiders (see p. 362).

The genus Steatoda possesses one English species (S. bipunctata) which is extremely common in buildings and in the angles of walls, and is a rather striking spider, with dark cephalothorax, and livid brown abdomen with a broken white stripe down the middle. Several closely allied genera are also sparingly represented in this country, among which may be mentioned Crustulina (two species), Asagena (one species), Teutana (two species), Lithyphantes (one species), Laseola (five species), and Euryopis (two species). In some of these the male is provided with a stridulating organ between the thorax and abdomen (Fig. 183, p. 327). The remarkable genus Tetrablemma (see p. 318) is considered by Simon to have affinities with this group, though Pickard-Cambridge, who first described it, is inclined to rank it among the Dysderidae.

FIG. 208.—Trithena tricuspidata ♀. × 3½. (After Simon.) ]

(iv.) The PHORONCIDIINAE are a remarkable group of spiny Theridiids whose superficial resemblance to the Gasteracanthinae of the Epeiridae (see p. 409) has often deceived Arachnologists as to their true affinities. There are eight genera, all exotic, inhabiting hot countries, and spinning a Theridion-like web on bushes. Phoroncidia has twelve species in South Asia and Madagascar. Trithena (Fig. 208) is its American representative, five species being found in South America. Ulesanis has about twenty species, and extends from South America to Australia.

(v.) The ERIGONINAE are an immense group of minute, sober-coloured spiders, which include the “Money-spinners” of popular nomenclature, and are largely responsible for the gossamer which fills the air and covers every tuft of grass in the autumn. The number of species described is very large and constantly increasing, and more than a hundred are recognised as British.

Desperate efforts have been made of late years to grapple with this almost unmanageable group, but the multitude of genera which have been proposed can hardly as yet be considered to be finally established. The small size of these spiders, which renders the aid of a microscope necessary to make out their structural peculiarities, robs them of their attractiveness to any but the ardent Arachnologist, but they number among them some of our most remarkable English forms, and many of them well repay examination. The smallest English species, Panamomops diceros, measures about 1 mm. (about ¹⁄₂₅ inch) in length. Many of the groups are jet black, some with dull and others with shiny integuments. They are never greatly variegated in hue, but the glossy black of the cephalothorax, combined with red-brown or yellow legs, gives to some species a rather rich coloration.

FIG. 209.—Profile of cephalothorax of 1, Lophocarenum insanum; 2, Dactylopisthes digiticeps; 3, Walckenaera acuminata (+ abdomen); 4, Diplocephalus bicephalus; 5, Metopobractus rayi. ]

It is impossible here to deal with this sub-family in detail. Some of its members must be familiar enough to everybody, and the reader is recommended to spend an hour of a warm autumn day in watching them depart on the ballooning excursions, of which a description has been given (see p. 341), from the knobs which surmount iron railings in a sunny spot. Among them he is pretty sure to find the genus Erigone— containing some of the largest members of the group—strongly represented.

In some species the male presents a remarkable difference from the female in the structure of its cephalothorax, which has the head region produced into eminences sometimes of the oddest conformation. An extreme example is seen in Walckenaera acuminata, a fine species in which the male caput is produced into a sort of spire, bearing the eyes, and nearly as high as the cephalothorax is long (Fig. 209, 3).

(vi.) The FORMICINAE include only two genera, Formicina (South Europe) and Solenysa (Japan). They are somewhat ant-like in appearance.

(vii.) The LINYPHIINAE are closely allied to the Erigoninae, but the legs are usually armed with spines, and very commonly the female has a dentated claw at the end of the pedipalp.

We include here about thirty genera of spiders of moderate or small size, living for the most part on bushes or herbage. The characteristic Linyphian web is a horizontal sheet of irregular strands, anchored to neighbouring twigs or leaves by cross threads in all directions, and the spider generally lurks beneath the web in an inverted position. Some of the larger species are very familiar objects, Linyphia triangularis being one of the most abundant English spiders, filling furze and other bushes with its extensive spinning work.

The sub-family may be roughly divided into three groups, of which the first is small, consisting of only three exotic genera of one species each. Donachochara may be taken as the type genus. They are moderate-sized spiders with rather short legs, found in France and Holland.

The second group consists of a number of genera of small spiders, sober-coloured, and generally more or less unicolorous in brown, yellow, or black, living in herbage. The sexes are much alike, the males never exhibiting the excrescences on the caput so often met with in the Erigoninae. The genus Tmeticus may be considered the type. It includes about forty species, of which about half are British. They are mostly dull yellow or brown spiders, averaging perhaps the eighth of an inch in length. Allied genera which are represented in England are Porhomma (twelve species), Microneta (twelve species), Sintula (twelve species). The American cave-genus Anthrobia comes here.

The third and last group is that including Linyphia and allied genera. They are moderate-sized or small spiders with long spiny legs and particularly long tarsi. The abdomen is generally decorated. The caput is frequently rather prominent and crowned with hairs.

Of the large number of spiders which have been described under the generic name of Linyphia, Simon only admits about fifty species. Ten are included in the British list. L. triangularis has already been mentioned, but there are other common species, as L. montana, L. marginata, and L. clathrata. The members of most of the associated genera are rather small in size. We may briefly mention Bolyphantes, Bathyphantes, Lephthyphantes, and Labulla, all of which include English species.

=Fam. 23. Epeiridae.=—This family includes all the spiders which spin circular or wheel-like snares, the highest form of spider industry, together with a few forms so closely allied in structure to orb-weaving species as to be systematically inseparable from them. It is practically co-extensive with the Argiopinae, Tetragnathinae, and Nephilinae of Simon’s Argiopidae in the Histoire naturelle des araignées.

No one is unfamiliar with the orbicular snares, the structure of which has already been described with some minuteness (see p. 344), and some of the spiders which construct them are among the best known members of the order.

It is impossible here to deal with the multitudinous forms embraced by this family. We must mention those genera richest in species, and some others of special interest. It will be convenient to indicate eight sub-families or groups, which include most of the forms likely to be met with. These are the THERIDIOSOMATINAE, TETRAGNATHINAE, ARGIOPINAE, NEPHILINAE, EPEIRINAE, GASTERACANTHINAE, POLTYINAE, and ARCYINAE.

(i.) The THERIDIOSOMATINAE are a small group which might with equal propriety be classed with the Theridiidae or the Epeiridae. Theridiosoma argenteolum is a rare spider in Dorsetshire. It is a minute spider, one-twelfth of an inch in length, with silvery white globular abdomen variegated with reddish brown, and yellow cephalothorax with darker caput. Some allied spiders spin a roughly circular snare.

(ii.) The TETRAGNATHINAE consist chiefly of two genera, Pachygnatha and Tetragnatha. The first consists of spiders which are not orb-weavers, but live in herbage, especially in swampy places. Two species, Pachygnatha clerckii and P. degeerii, are common in England, and a third, P. listeri, is sometimes met with. They are rather striking, prettily marked spiders, with strongly developed chelicerae.

The species of Tetragnatha are true orb-weavers, and may easily be recognised by their cylindrical bodies, elongated chelicerae, and long legs, stretched fore and aft along the rays of their webs. Five species have been recorded from England, and the genus contains at least a hundred species in all; almost every country in the world, regardless of its latitude, supplying examples.

Simon associates with these spiders the genus Meta, which includes perhaps our commonest Epeirid, Meta segmentata, a smallish and not very striking Orb-weaver, with a rather elongated or subcylindrical abdomen. Every garden is pretty sure to abound in it.

(iii.) The ARGIOPINAE include many large and very striking members of the Epeiridae. There are about a hundred species of Argiope (Fig. 198, p. 379) spread over the tropical and sub-tropical countries of the world. They rarely invade the temperate regions, but A. bruennichi is found in South Europe, and A. trifasciata in Canada. The large spiders with transverse bars of yellow or orange on their abdomen, and often with a silvery sheen, belong to this genus. The species of the allied genus Gea are generally much smaller, and their abdomen more elongated. Both genera are found in tropical and sub-tropical regions all over the world. Argiope always sits in the middle of its circular web. There are invariably some flossy zigzag bands of silk stretched between two of the rays, and the web is generally accompanied by an irregular net on its border, where the much smaller male may be found.

(iv.) Among the NEPHILINAE are to be found the largest Epeirids. Indeed, the largest yield in size only to the Aviculariidae. Nephila is a tropical genus, numbering about sixty species. The abdomen is generally elongated and somewhat cylindrical, and is strikingly variegated. It is in this group that the disparity in size between the sexes is most marked (see p. 379).

(v.) The EPEIRINAE include the bulk of the Orb-weavers, and form a very extensive group. Five genera and twenty-eight species are in the British list.

No spider is more familiar than Epeira diademata (Fig. 181, p. 325), the Garden-spider, par excellence, which attains its greatest size and spreads its largest snares in the autumn. The smaller and much less conspicuous Zilla x-notata is sure to be found abundantly in the same locality. Several other Epeirids are to be found in this country, especially in the south, by sweeping heather or bushes with a net, or shaking the boughs of trees over an umbrella or other receptacle. The little apple-green species is Epeira cucurbitina. E. cornuta is extremely common in marshy places all over the country. In furze bushes, and often among sedge in swampy places, will frequently be found E. quadrata, one of the largest and handsomest species we possess. The ground-colour may vary from orange-red to green, and there are four conspicuous white spots on the abdomen. The tent-like retreat which this spider makes near its snare often catches the eye.

FIG. 210.—Epeira angulata, ♀. ]

E. umbratica is a dark flat, somewhat toad-like Epeirid of retiring habits, which stretches its snare usually on wooden palings, between the timbers of which it squeezes its flat body, and waits for insects to entangle themselves.

Two of our finest Epeiras, E. pyramidata and E. angulata (Fig. 210), are seldom met with, and only in the south.

Our only Cyclosa (C. conica) is easily recognised by the peculiar form of its abdomen, which is greatly prolonged beyond the spinnerets. It is a small, rather dark species, which constructs a particularly perfect snare.

Five British Epeirids belong to the genus Singa. They are small creatures, not exceeding a sixth of an inch in length. They live in heathery and marshy localities.

(vi.) The GASTERACANTHINAE are a remarkable group of Epeirids, characterised by the hard and coriaceous integument covering the abdomen, which is usually furnished with a number of more or less formidable thorn-like spines, calculated to render these spiders by no means pleasant eating for insectivorous birds. An even more constant characteristic is the presence on the back of the abdomen of a number of “sigilla,” or somewhat seal-like impressions arranged symmetrically, four forming a trapezium in the middle, while the others are distributed round the border.

FIG. 211.—Gasteracantha minax, ♀. ]

There are about 200 species of Gasteracantha, all natives of tropical countries.

The spiders of the genus Micrathena (Acrosoma) have a more elongate cephalothorax, and sometimes the spines are exceedingly long, far exceeding the length of the body proper. Among the less spiny members of this group are some remarkable mimetic ant-like forms.

(vii.) The POLTYINAE include some remarkable spiders, found in Africa and South Asia for the most part, though sparingly represented in America and Oceania. They are generally largish spiders, often with a very odd conformation of the abdomen, which is generally much raised. The type genus is Poltys.

(viii.) The ARCYINAE, which are more characteristic of Australia and the neighbouring islands, are a small group of spiders, usually yellow with black markings, and with the somewhat square-shaped cephalothorax usually prominent at the angles. The type genus is Arcys.

=Fam. 24. Uloboridae.=—The Uloboridae are cribellate spiders, with rather elongate cephalothorax, devoid of median fovea. The cribellum is transverse and generally undivided. The first pair of legs are usually much the longest. The metatarsi of the fourth legs, in addition to the calamistrum, bear a number of generally regularly arranged spines. The eyes are often situated on tubercles. Three sub-families are recognised, DINOPINAE, ULOBORINAE, and MIAGRAMMOPINAE.

(i.) The DINOPINAE are a small group comprising only two genera, Dinopis and Menneus. The calamistrum is short, occupying not more than half of the metatarsus. Twenty species of Dinopis and six of Menneus are scattered over the tropical regions of the world.

(ii.) The ULOBORINAE include a number of spiders which have been described under several generic names, but are now considered to fall into two genera, Sybota and Uloborus. Sybota has only two species, one in the Mediterranean region and one in Chili. There are about sixty species of Uloborus, some of which have a wide distribution, while many (e.g. U. republicanus, of Venezuela) are social. The type species, U. walckenaerius, is a very rare spider in England.

(iii.) The MIAGRAMMOPINAE include two genera containing some very interesting forms. The genus Miagrammopes, of which twenty species have been described, though the number is probably far greater, is characterised by a very long cylindrical abdomen, and by the apparent possession of only four eyes, in a transverse row. These are really the posterior eyes; and the anterior eyes, or some of them, are present in a very reduced condition. Little is known of the habits of these spiders.

FIG. 212.—Hyptiotes paradoxus, ♀. ]

The other genus, Hyptiotes, though only boasting three species, possesses a special interest on account of the remarkable snare constructed by the spiders which belong to it. This has already been described in the section upon defective orb-webs (see p. 349).

The type species, H. paradoxus, is very rare in England, and though small and inconspicuous, it is certainly one of the most curious members of our Spider fauna.

=Fam. 25. Archeidae.=—This small family includes certain remarkable fossil spiders from Baltic amber, and two rare recent forms, Archea (Eriauchenus) workmani from Madagascar, and Mecysmauchenius segmentatus from America. The chelicerae, which are extraordinarily long, are articulated far away from the mouth-parts. The caput is clearly marked off from the thorax, and is much raised. In several other respects these spiders are very distinct from all other members of the order.

=Fam. 26. Mimetidae.=—The Mimetidae form a small group in general appearance recalling the Theridiidae, with which family they were for a long time incorporated. The chief genera are Ero, Mimetus, and Gelanor. Ero furcata (= thoracica) is a pretty little spider, not rare among grass in England. The upper side of its very convex abdomen is marked with red, yellow, and black, and bears two little protuberances or humps near the middle. It is only about an eighth of an inch long. Its interesting egg-cocoon has already been alluded to (see p. 358). E. tuberculata has been found on rare occasions in this country. There are about ten other species of Ero, all small spiders, and living in temperate regions. The genus Mimetus (in which is merged Blackwall’s Ctenophora) includes a number of larger, more strongly-built spiders, living for the most part in tropical countries.

The genus Gelanor (Galena) is the American representative of the group, its three species being rather large spiders, inhabiting Central and South America. The males of this genus have remarkably long and slender pedipalpi, much longer than the whole body.

=Fam. 27. Thomisidae.=—The Thomisidae are the Latigrade spiders of Latreille, and the “Crab-spiders” of popular nomenclature. Their legs are extended more or less laterally instead of in the normal fore and aft directions, and their progression is frequently strikingly crab-like. They form a very large group of more than 140 genera, including spiders of every size, and they are to be found in every quarter of the world. Forty-three species are British. Many strange forms are included in this group, and several of the sub-families into which it has been divided contain only one or two genera. The bulk of its members fall into the sub-families THOMISINAE, PHILODROMINAE, and SPARASSINAE.

(i.) The THOMISINAE (MISUMENINAE of Simon’s Hist. Nat.) include what may be called the more normal members of the family, distributed among more than sixty genera. Six of these genera are represented in the British Isles. Our commonest Crab-spider is probably Xysticus cristatus, abundant everywhere in grass and herbage. Young specimens may often be seen upon iron railings in the autumn. Twelve other species of that genus are on the British list. They are of small or moderate size, rarely exceeding a quarter of an inch in length. A closely allied genus is Oxyptila, of which we have seven species. The more striking members of this sub-family to be found in England are our single representatives of the genera Misumena, Diaea, and Thomisus. Misumena vatia is a handsome species, the female measuring sometimes more than a third of an inch, and having its large yellow or green abdomen marked, in many specimens, with a pair of bright red bands, which, however, are not always present. The males are much smaller and darker. It is common in some parts of England, especially in the south, where it is to be sought for in bushes and trees.

FIG. 213.—Thomisid spiders. =A=, Micrommata virescens, ♀; =B=, Xysticus pini, ♀; =C=, Philodromus margaritatus, ♂; =D=, Tibellus oblongus, ♀. ]

Diaea dorsata is one of our prettiest British species, with light green legs and cephalothorax, and a yellow abdomen with a red-brown central marking. It is common in the New Forest and other southern localities. The female attains a quarter of an inch in length.

Thomisus onustus, a rare spider among heather, is recognisable by the shape of its abdomen, which is broadest behind and abruptly truncated. When adult the abdomen is a pale yellow, but the young are suffused with a pink hue closely corresponding with that of the heather blossom in which they are frequently found sitting.

(ii.) The PHILODROMINAE have the cephalothorax more rounded in front, and the legs, especially the second pair, usually longer than in the Thomisinae. There are ten genera, of which the most important is Philodromus, which numbers about a hundred species. They are active spiders, living upon bushes and trees, and most of them are inhabitants of temperate regions. We have about twelve species in the British Isles. The commonest is Ph. aureolus, which is abundant on bushes in most parts of the country. Some species are very prettily marked, and one, Ph. margaritatus (Fig. 213, C) presents a very good example of protective coloration, being almost indistinguishable on the blue-grey lichen on tree trunks, where it lies in wait for insects.

Another important genus, including some fifty species, is Thanatus, extending from tropical to arctic regions, but very sparingly represented in England. Th. striatus (= hirsutus) occurs occasionally, and one example of the fine species Th. formicinus has been taken in the New Forest. The members of this genus as a rule affect dry and sandy habitats.

The genus Tibellus includes few species, but has a wide distribution. The type species T. oblongus (Fig. 213, D) is found in the temperate regions all over the world, and is common in England. It is a pale straw-coloured spider with a much elongated abdomen. It closely resembles the stems of dry grass in hue, and when alarmed it remains perfectly still with its legs embracing the stem and its abdomen closely applied to it.

(iii.) The SPARASSINAE include most of the large Latigrade forms, and number about forty genera.

Heteropoda venatoria is a cosmopolitan species, and though proper to warm countries, is often introduced here on hothouse plants, and has been known to establish itself in the open air in botanical gardens. Our only indigenous member of this sub-family is Micrommata virescens (Fig. 213, A). This striking spider is found, though rarely, in the south of England. The female is half an inch in length and of a vivid green hue, while the more cylindrical abdomen of the male is yellow with three longitudinal scarlet lines. Other genera are Sparassus, Torania, and Delena.

(iv.) The APHANTOCHILINAE include two curious genera which are exclusively American. The labium is much reduced and the sternum is shortened, terminating between the third pair of legs. The species of Aphantochilus are largish, glossy-black spiders, sometimes spotted with white. Some of them mimic ants of the genus Cryptocerus. The other genus is Bucranium.

(v.) The STEPHANOPSINAE include about sixteen genera, of which the best known are Stephanopsis and Regillus. There are about fifty species of Stephanopsis, most of them Australian, while the eight species of Regillus belong to Africa and South Asia.

The mimetic form Phrynarachne decipiens has already been alluded to (see p. 374).

(vi.) The SELENOPINAE consist of a single genus, Selenops, of which ten or twelve species are known, some of which are very widely distributed, though confined to hot regions. These spiders, which are all large, are easily recognised by their extremely flat bodies and the peculiar arrangement of their eyes, all eight of them being placed more or less in a single transverse line.

=Fam. 28. Zoropsidae.=—The Zoropsidae are cribellate spiders of large size, with well-developed scopulae on tarsi and metatarsi. The cribellum is divided, and the calamistrum, which is very short, is not well developed. Most are inhabitants of hot regions, where they live under stones or bark. Zoropsis has six species, chiefly inhabitants of North Africa, though representatives occur on the European side of the Mediterranean. Acanthoctenus has two species in South and Central America.

=Fam. 29. Platoridae.=—The Platoridae are Thomisid-like, medium-sized spiders, generally with a uniform yellow or brown coloration. The spinnerets are their most characteristic features. The median pair present a large flat surface studded with two parallel rows of large fusulae, while the anterior pair are situated outside them, and are thus widely separated. There are only three genera, and very few species of this family. Plator insolens is a Chinese species. Doliomalus and Vectius belong to South America.

=Fam. 30. Agelenidae.=—Sedentary spiders with slight sexual dimorphism; with three tarsal claws and devoid of scopulae.

The Agelenidae spin a more or less extensive web of fine texture, usually accompanied by a tubular retreat. Our commonest cellar spiders belong to this group, which may be divided into three sub-families, CYBAEINAE, AGELENINAE, and HAHNIINAE.

(i.) The CYBAEINAE include some sixteen genera, of which two deserve special mention on account of the peculiar habits of the spiders belonging to them.

Desis is a genus of marine spiders, said to live on coral reefs below high-water mark, and to remain in holes in the rock during high tide, enclosed in cocoons impermeable to the sea-water. At low tide it is stated that they come forth and prey upon small crustaceans. Argyroneta has only one species, A. aquatica, spread throughout Europe and North and Central Asia. It is the well-known “Water-spider,” which is so often an object of interest in aquaria.

(ii.) The AGELENINAE also contain sixteen genera, but it is a much larger group, some of the genera being rich in species. They are mostly moderate or large-sized hairy spiders, living in temperate or cold climates. There are about fifty species of Tegenaria, seven of which have been recorded as British.

Our commonest Cellar-spider is T. derhamii, but the very large long-legged species found in houses in the southern counties of England is T. parietina (= guyonii = domestica). There are not many species of Agelena, but one, A. labyrinthica, is a common object in this country, with its large, close-textured web and accompanying tube spread on grassy banks by the wayside. Coelotes atropos is a formidable-looking spider, found occasionally under stones in England and Wales. Another genus, Cryphoeca, has three British representatives.

(iii.) The HAHNIINAE are recognised at once by their spinnerets, which are arranged in a single transverse line, the posterior pair being on the outside, and generally much the longest. Hahnia contains several species of very small spiders, of which four or five are British, usually occurring among moss or herbage. The aberrant form Nicodamus (Centropelma), usually placed among the Theridiidae, is removed by Simon to the Agelenidae, forming by itself the sub-family (iv.) NICODAMINAE.

=Fam. 31. Pisauridae.=—The Pisauridae are hairy, long-legged spiders, intermediate, both in structure and in habits, between the Agelenidae and the Lycosidae. Many new genera have recently been added to the group, but many of them only include one or two species.

Pisaura is spread throughout the temperate regions of the Old World, and P. (Ocyale) mirabilis is common in England, being found abundantly in woods and on commons. It is a striking spider, more than half an inch in length, and its elongate abdomen is marked on either side with a sinuous longitudinal white band.

There are some thirty species of Dolomedes scattered over the temperate regions of the world. D. fimbriatus is a rare species in marshy spots in the south of England, and is one of the largest British spiders. The ground-colour is deep brown, with two longitudinal yellowish stripes both on cephalothorax and abdomen.

The genus Dolomedes is replaced by Thaumasia in South America.

=Fam. 32. Lycosidae.=—These are what are popularly known as “Wolf-spiders.” They are vagabond hunting spiders, spinning no snare, but chasing their prey along the ground, and in the breeding season carrying their egg-bags with them, attached beneath the abdomen. Some of them burrow in the loose earth or sand, but others seem to have nothing in the way of a habitation.

FIG. 214.—Lycosid Spiders. =1=, Lycosa fabrilis, ♀; =2=, Lycosa picta, ♀; =3=, Pardosa amentata, ♀. ]

The arrangement of the eyes is very characteristic. They are in three rows. The front row consists of four small eyes above the insertion of the chelicerae, and directed forwards. Two comparatively very large eyes form the next row, and occupy the upper angles of the facies, being also directed forwards. The third row consists of two medium-sized eyes placed dorso-laterally on the caput, some distance behind the rest, and looking upwards. The tarsi are three-clawed. The so-called “Tarantula” spiders belong to this group, though the name has been so abused in popular usage, and has passed through so many vicissitudes in scientific nomenclature, that it is difficult to tell what creature is intended by it. In America the Aviculariidae are commonly called Tarantulas.

The two chief genera of this extensive family are Lycosa and Pardosa.

The genus Lycosa includes about 400 species. It has been broken up from time to time into various genera (Trochosa, Pirata, Tarentula, etc.), but these glide into each other by imperceptible degrees, and are now discarded. They are large or moderate-sized spiders, found in every part of the world. About twenty species are British, some of them being fine and handsomely marked. One of the prettiest is Lycosa picta, common on the sandhills in some localities.

Some exotic species are very large, Lycosa ingens, from Madeira, measuring sometimes more than an inch and a half in length.

Pardosa (Fig. 188, p. 341) is not so rich in species, but the individuals of some species are wonderfully numerous. Hundreds of P. lugubris, for example, may be seen scampering over the dead leaves of a wood in the autumn. These spiders are generally sombrely coloured and well covered with hair. Perhaps the commonest and most widely spread species in this country is P. amentata.

=Fam. 33. Ctenidae.=—The Ctenidae are Lycosa-like spiders, having in certain points of structure close affinities with the Pisauridae and the Sparassinae of the Thomisidae. The limits of the family are not well defined, and many arachnologists place in it some of the genera allotted above to the Pisauridae, while others do not consider the group sufficiently marked off to constitute a separate family at all. As here understood they are equivalent to the Cteninae of the Clubionidae in Simon’s Histoire naturelle. The eyes are arranged in the Lycosa fashion, but the tarsi have only two terminal claws and well-developed “claw-tufts,” frequently accompanied by a scopula. There are strong, regularly-arranged spines under the tibiae and tarsi.

There are about fifteen genera. Uliodon numbers six species of large hairy spiders in Australia. Ctenus is rich in species, having about sixty, found in all hot countries, but especially in America and Africa. They are also of large size and usually of yellowish coloration, often diversified by a pattern on the abdomen. The fifteen species of Leptoctenus are proper to tropical Asia. Acantheis from South Asia and Enoplectenus from Brazil are more slender, elongate forms, recalling Tetragnatha. Caloctenus includes a number of Pardosa-like spiders found at a high elevation in South America.

The Ctenidae have the habits of the Lycosidae, and are wandering spiders, some forming a burrow in the ground.

=Fam. 34. Senoculidae.=—The South American genus Senoculus (Labdacus) alone constitutes this family. The species are probably numerous, but ten only have been described. They are moderate-sized spiders, spinning no web, but running with astonishing speed over the leaves and stems of plants. The generic name is really inapplicable, as there are eight eyes, but the anterior laterals are much reduced. The abdomen is long, and the legs are long and unequal, the first pair much the longest and the third much the shortest.

=Fam. 35. Oxyopidae.=—The Oxyopidae form a well-marked group, with oval cephalothorax somewhat narrowed in front, and lanceolate abdomen. The eight black eyes have a characteristic arrangement, and the anterior medians are always very small. The legs are long and tapering, and not very unequal, and are furnished with particularly long spines, which give these spiders a very characteristic appearance. There are eight genera, of which the most important are Pucetia and Oxyopes.

Pucetia contains a number of rather large spiders, generally bright green, often variegated with red. They affect particular plants. For instance, P. viridis, which occurs in Spain, is always found on Ononis hispanica. There are about thirty species of this genus distributed over the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Oxyopes numbers many species, certainly more than fifty, and has a similar distribution, but some of its members invade colder regions. They are of rather small size. O. lineatus is a very rare spider in the south of England.

The Oxyopidae are diurnal spiders, running over plants in search of prey, and often leaping, after the fashion of members of the following family.

=Fam. 36. Attidae (Salticidae).=—Wandering spiders with cephalothorax broad anteriorly, and bearing eight homogeneous eyes in three rows. Four eyes, largely developed, are directed forward; the remaining four eyes are placed dorsally in two rows, the first pair being much reduced in size.

The Attidae or Jumping-spiders form the most extensive family of the whole order, the known species amounting to something like four thousand. It is only of late years that their vast numbers have begun to be realised, for their vagabond habits and great activity enabled them to a great extent to elude the earlier collectors, whose methods were not as thorough as those now in vogue. Their real home is in the tropical regions, temperate fauna being comparatively poor in Attid species. France boasts nearly 150, but only 37 are recorded for the British Isles, and 2 at least of these are recent introductions.

Some of the tropical forms are most brilliantly coloured, glowing with vivid colours and metallic hues, and they have frequently excited the admiration of travellers. The coloration is nearly always due to the hairs and scales with which the spiders are clothed, and is, unfortunately, almost incapable of preservation in the collector’s cabinet.

These spiders are all wanderers, spinning no snares, though they form a sort of silken cell or retreat, in which the female lays her eggs. Their habits are diurnal, and they delight in sunshine. They stalk their prey and leap upon it with wonderful accuracy. They invariably attach a thread at intervals in their course, and on the rare occasions when they miss their aim while hunting on a perpendicular surface, they are saved from a fall by the silken line proceeding from the spot whence the leap was made.

FIG. 215.—Attid Spiders. =A=, Salticus scenicus, ♂; =B=, Marpissa muscosa, ♀; =C=, Synemosyna formica, ♀; =D=, Ballus variegatus, ♀. ]

The movements of these spiders are sufficient to indicate their systematic position without entering upon structural details, but their eyes deserve a special mention. They are all dark-coloured and very unequal in size, and they occupy the whole area of the caput, usually forming a large quadrilateral figure. Four large eyes occupy the facies or “forehead,” the medians being especially large. Next come two very small eyes, behind the anterior laterals, and lastly two of medium size at the posterior corners of the caput.

This vast family does not lend itself easily to division into sub-families, and it will be impossible here to do more than indicate a very few of the multitudinous forms.

The most familiar British example is Salticus scenicus (Epiblemum scenicum), the little black and white striped spider to be seen hunting on walls and fences during the summer. Marpissa muscosa is the largest English species, measuring about half an inch. It has a brownish-yellow coloration, and is found, though not commonly, in similar situations. Attus pubescens affects grey stone walls, on which it is nearly invisible except when moving. The other British species are mostly to be found on trees and shrubs or among herbage, or hunting over bare sandy spots in the sunshine. A few (Marpissa pomatia, Hyctia nivoyi) are fen species. Hasarius falcatus is a handsome spider, common in woods in some localities.

The species differ much in their jumping powers; the Marpissas, for example, are not great leapers, but the little Attus saltator, found on sandhills, jumps like a flea, and the North American species Saitis pulex has a suggestive specific name.

Again, in this family there are mimetic forms resembling ants. Myrmarachne formicaria (Salticus formicarius) is found very rarely in England, but is not uncommon on the Continent.

Synageles and Synemosyna are allied genera. Phidippus is a genus well represented in America, and Ph. morsitans has already been mentioned (p. 365) in connexion with its poisonous reputation. Astia and Icius have American representatives (see pp. 381, 382), though the type species belongs to the Old World.