Part 111

In the Leblanc process the first step is to treat the salt, or sodium chloride, with sulphuric acid. As a result of this, a compound of sodium, sulphur, and oxygen, called sodium sulphate is formed, together with another acid containing hydrogen and chlorine, and called hydrochloric acid. This acid is driven off by boiling, and the sodium sulphate is left.

The next step in the process is to convert the sodium sulphate, or “salt cake,” into soda, or, to give it its chemical name, sodium carbonate. This change is brought about by mixing the salt cake with limestone and coal and heating the mixture. Just what changes go on when this is done, are not known, but the chief ones are probably the following: the coal, which consists for the most part of an element called carbon, takes the oxygen out of the sodium sulphate, and unites with it to form carbonic acid gas, leaving a compound of sodium and sulphur called sodium sulphide; this acts on the limestone, which is composed of a metal, calcium, in combination with carbon and oxygen, and causes the sulphur in the sodium sulphide to combine with the calcium, forming calcium sulphide, while the sodium combines with the carbon and oxygen and forms the desired compound, sodium carbonate. After the heating, the resulting mass which contains calcium sulphide, sodium carbonate, and some unburned coal, and is known as “black ash,” is broken up and treated with water. This dissolves the sodium carbonate, leaving the rest undissolved, and when part of the water is evaporated crystals containing sodium carbonate and water are formed. By heating these the water may be driven off, and the sodium carbonate left behind as a white powder.

The Solvay, or ammonia soda, process consists in forcing carbonic acid gas through strong brine, to which a considerable quantity of ammonia has been added. When this is done, crystals are formed in the brine, which are composed of a compound of hydrogen, sodium, carbon, and oxygen, and are called sodium bicarbonate. This substance, which is the soda we sometimes use in baking bread, is decomposed by heating, into water and sodium carbonate, the soda used for washing.

The Leblanc process was formerly used almost altogether for making soda; but in recent years the Solvay process has come into extensive use, and it is said that now more than half the soda of the world is made in this way.

Where Do All the Little Round Stones Come From?

The little round stones you are thinking of are really pebbles which have been worn smooth and round by being rubbed against each other in the water, through the action of the waves on a beach, or the running water of brooks and streams. This sort of rock is called a water-formed rock. Some of them have travelled many miles before they are found side by side on the shore or in a large mass of what we would call conglomerate rock. But whenever you see a round smooth rock or pebble you may be quite sure that it was made round and smooth by the action of water.

You sometimes see large rocks made of small stones of various colors and sizes. You can often find a large rock of this kind standing by itself. If you examine it carefully, you will find it consists of an immense number of small stones of different sizes and of a variety of colors, all fastened together as though with cement. This kind of rock is called conglomerate. We know two kinds of conglomerate rock, one, quite common, in which the little stones are round and smooth, and another, not seen so often, in which the stones are sharp. The latter sort is sometimes called breccia, to distinguish it from the former, which is called true pudding stone.

What Is Clay?

Clay is the result of the crumbling of a certain kind of rocks called feldspars. When feldspar is exposed to the action of the weather, it crumbles slowly at the surface and the little fragments combine with a certain amount of water, forming clay. Pure clay is white and is used in the manufacture of china and porcelain. The common clay that we usually think of when we think of clay, is generally yellowish, but there are many different colored clays. Most of these colors, particularly those of red clay, yellow clay and blue clay, come from the iron which is present in the clay. Clay which contains iron is useful for making bricks. Bricks are made from clay by first softening the clay and pressing it in molds, the size of a brick. When dried for a time in the sun they are put into an oven and baked in great heat and they become quite hard and generally red. Most of the clay from which bricks are made turns red when baked, whether blue, yellow or red, because the iron which is in the clay is generally turned red when subjected to heat.

For making porcelains it is desirable to use the kinds of clay which contain nothing that melts when heated to a high degree. Clays which contain substances which melt in strong heat are, therefore, not good for making porcelains. There is a pure white clay called Kaolin which is very excellent for this purpose. Clay out of which we make firebrick for lining stoves and fireplaces is free from substances which melt. Several kinds of clay are good for making paints.

Where Do School Slates Come From?

Slates such as are used in school and as roofing material are formed of clay, which has been hardened under pressure and heat. When this occurs it does so because a number of layers of clay, one on top of the other, have at sometime been subjected to great heat and pressure within the earth with the result that the clay is pressed into very thick layers and changed in color by the heat and becomes hard. There are many kinds of slate. Some of the slate, as found in slate mines, is used to make roofs over buildings and for this purpose they are cut to shapes very much like wooden shingles. They are easily broken, however, as slate is very brittle.

Slate is used in many other ways besides for roofs and school slates. Sometimes it is made into slate pencils but, since paper has become so cheap, comparatively few slate pencils are used in the school room today.

What Causes Shadows?

Where anything through which rays of light cannot pass intercepts the light rays coming from a luminous body, the light rays are turned back in the direction from which they come and the part on the other side of the object which intercepted the light goes into shade and a shadow results. A shadow then is produced by cutting off one or more light rays. We notice shadows when the sun is bright in the daytime and at night when we walk along the streets lighted partly by street lamps. The shadows we see in the daytime are caused by our cutting off and throwing back some of the light rays which come from the sun. These are not so dark as the shadows we see at night because the rays of light from the sun are so bright and are reflected from so many other objects to the side and in back of us.

When, however, we are walking along a dimly lighted street and come to a street lamp the shadows our bodies cause are quite black. The night shadows are darker because the source of light is less intense and the objects to the side of and in back of us (if we are walking toward the light) do not reflect so much of the light rays as they do of the sun’s rays in the daytime.

The Foundation of a Sky Scraper

How Hollow Steel Piles, Compressed and Concrete Are Employed to Make a Foundation

Rapidity of building construction is of primary importance in every city of metropolitan size. When real estate is sold at the rate of several hundred dollars a square foot it is self-evident that time is indeed money. The delay of a few days in completing a structure may deprive the owner of the chance of earning thousands in rental money. Because of the excessive depth of an open caisson, the completion of a foundation may be delayed for months. Hence the building may not be completed until the renting period has passed and the owner must wait an entire year before he can expect any financial return on his investment.

Because rapidity is so essential in city building construction the method of first sinking an open pit to rock in providing a foundation has been displaced to a large extent by a system in which heavy hollow steel piles are employed in clusters to support a building. The hollow piles are driven through quicksand to rock, cleaned out and ultimately filled with concrete.

~PILES ARE DRIVEN DOWN TO SOLID ROCK~

In this method of constructing foundations, which is illustrated, hollow steel piles are driven in the well-known manner down to solid rock. The steel pile sections vary in length from 20 feet to 22 feet, and in diameter from 12 inches to 24 inches. If the ground is to be penetrated to a depth greater than 22 feet, the sections of piling are connected by means of a sleeve in such manner that a watertight joint is formed. Under a pressure of 150 pounds to the square inch a jet of compressed air is then employed to blow out the earth and water contained within the shell. A spouting geyser of mud rising sometimes to a height of 150 feet, and occasional large pieces of rock blown up from a depth of 40 feet below the ground, bear testimony to the terrific force of the air blast.

When the shell has been completely cleaned out by means of the blast of compressed air, the exposed rock can be examined by lowering an electric light. Steel sounding rods are employed to test the hardness of the rock and to detect the difference between soft and hard bed rock. After the piles in each pier have been cleaned out, they must be cut off at absolutely the same height--sometimes a very difficult task when there is little room. The oxy-acetylene torch is used for the purpose, the intensely hot flame cutting off the steel almost like butter at the exact elevation desired.

PILE BEING CUT TO PROPER LEVEL BY MEANS OF OXY-ACETYLENE TORCH.

After the piles in each pier have been cleaned out they must be cut off at exactly the same height--sometimes a very difficult task when there is little room. The oxy-acetylene torch is used for the purpose, the intensely hot flame cutting off the steel almost like butter.]

~PILES ARE NEXT FILLED WITH CONCRETE~

The hollow shell is next filled with concrete reinforced by means of long two-inch steel rods, sometimes fifty feet in length. On clusters of these concrete-filled piles, the weight of the building is supported.

That this method of constructing foundations is indeed rapid, the story of the work at 145-147 West Twenty-eighth Street, New York City, proves. Rock was located 38 feet below the curb. The material above it was clay and water-bearing sand. Structural steel was due in three weeks, but the completion of the cellar was still ten days off. The steel pile foundation method offered the only solution of the problem. Specifications were drawn which called for eighty-five 12-inch steel piles, driven to rock, blown clean by compressed air, and filled with concrete, reinforced with 2-inch rods. Despite various obstructions on the ground (shoring of neighboring buildings and the like) the driving was started on June 30th. The excavator was still taking out his runway while the rear half of the lot was completely driven. After he had left the ground a compressor was set up, and the first pipe was blown on July 7th. Three days later all driving and cleaning had been completed. During the following two days all the piles were filled and capped. In a word, the entire foundation had been completed three days before the expected arrival of the steel.