Part 24

Eocene - - - - - - 6,100 m.

and assuming that the orogenic forces began their work in the last quarter of the Eocene period, we have a total of 13,400 m. as some measure of the time which elapsed. At the rate of io centimetres in a century these deposits could not have collected in less than 13.4 millions of years. It would appear that not less than some ten millions of years were consumed in the genesis of the Alps before constructive movements finally ceased.

The progress of the earth-movements was attended by the usual volcanic phenomena. The Oligocene and Miocene volcanoes extended in a band marked by the Auvergne, the Eiffel, the Bohemian, and the eastern Carpathian eruptions; and, later, towards the close of the movements in Pliocene times, the south border

Sollas, Anniversary Address, Geol. Soc., London, 1909.

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regions of the Alps became the scene of eruptions such as those of Etna, Santorin, Somma (Vesuvius), etc.

We have referred to these well-known episodes with two objects in view: to recall to mind the time-interval involved, and the evidence of intense crustal disturbance, both dynamic and thermal. According to views explained in a previous essay, the energetic effects of radium in the sediments and upper crust were a principal factor in localising and bringing about these results. We propose now to inquire if, also, in the more intimate structure of the Alps, the radioactive energy may not have borne a part.

What we see today in the Alps is but a residue spared by denudation. It is certain that vast thicknesses of material have disappeared. Even while constructive effects were still in progress, denudative forces were not idle. Of this fact the shingle accumulations of the Molasse, where, on the northern borders of the Alps, they stand piled into mountains, bear eloquent testimony. In the sub-Apennine series of Italy, the great beds of clays, marls, and limestones afford evidence of these destructive processes continued into Pliocene times. We have already referred to Schmidt's estimate that the sedimentary covering must have in places amounted to from 15,000 to 20,000 metres. The evidence for this is mainly tectonic or structural; but is partly forthcoming in the changes which the materials now open to our inspection plainly reveal. Thus it is impos-

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sible to suppose that gneissic rocks can become so far plastic as to flow in and around the calcareous sediments, or be penetrated by the latter--as we see in the Jungfrau and elsewhere--unless great pressures and high temperatures prevailed. And, according to some writers, the temperatures revealed by the intimate structural changes of rock-forming minerals must have amounted to those of fusion. The existence of such conditions is supported by the observation that where the.crystallisation is now the most perfect, the phenomena of folding and injection are best developed. These high temperatures would appear to be unaccountable without the intervention of radiothermal effects; and, indeed, have been regarded as enigmatic by observers of the phenomena in question. A covering of 20,000 metres in thickness would not occasion an earth-temperature exceeding 500 deg. C. if the gradients were such as obtain in mountain regions generally; and 600 deg. is about the limit we could ascribe to the purely passive effects of such a layer in elevating the geotherms.

Those who are still unacquainted with the recently published observations on the structure of the Alps may find it difficult to enter into what has now to be stated; for the facts are, indeed, very different from the generally preconceived ideas of mountain formation. Nor can we wonder that many geologists for long held

Weinschenk, C. R. Congres Geol., 1900, p. 321, et seq.

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back from admitting views which appeared so extreme. Receptivity is the first virtue of the scientific mind; but, with every desire to lay aside prejudice, many felt unequal to the acceptance of structural features involving a folding of the earth-crust in laps which lay for scores of miles from country to country, and the carriage of mountainous materials from the south of the Alps to the north, leaving them finally as Alpine ranges of ancient sediments reposing on foundations of more recent date. The historian of the subject will have to relate how some who finally were most active in advancing the new views were at first opposed to them. In the change of conviction of these eminent geologists we have the strongest proof of the convincing nature of the observations and the reality of the tectonic features upon which the recent views are founded.

The lesser mountains which stand along the northern border of the great limestone Alps, those known as the Prealpes, present the strange characteristic of resting upon materials younger than themselves. Such mountains as the remarkable-looking Mythen, near Schwyz, for instance, are weathered from masses of Triassic and Jurassic rock, and repose on the much more recent Flysch. In sharp contrast to the Flysch scenery, they stand as abrupt and gigantic erratics, which have been transported from the central zone of the Alps lying far to the south. They are strangers petrologically,

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stratigraphically, and geographically, to the locality in which they now occur. The exotic materials may be dolomites, limestones, schists, sandstones, or rocks of igneous origin. They show in every case traces of the severe dynamic actions to which they have been subjected in transit. The igneous, like the sedimentary, klippen, can be traced to distant sources; to the massif of Belladonne, to Mont Blanc, Lugano, and the Tyrol. The Prealpes are, in fact, mountains without local roots.

In this last-named essential feature, the Prealpes do not differ from the still greater limestone Alps which succeed them to the south. These giants, e.g. the Jungfrau, Wetterhorn, Eiger, etc., are also without local foundations. They have been formed from the overthrown and drawn-out anticlines of great crust-folds, whose synclines or roots are traceable to the south side of the Rhone Valley. The Bernese Oberland originated in the piling-up of four great sheets or recumbent folds, one of which is continued into the Prealpes. With Lugeon we may see in the phenomenon of the formation of the Prealpes a detail; regarding it as a normal expression of that mechanism which has created the Swiss Alps. For these limestone masses of the Oberland are not indications of a merely local shift of the sedimentary covering of the Alps. Almost the whole covering has

De Lapparent, Traite de Geologie, p. 1,785.

Lugeon, Bulletin Soc. Geol. de France, 1901, p. 772.

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been pushed over and piled up to the north. Lugeon concludes that, before denudation had done its work and cut off the Prealpes from their roots, there would have been found sheets, to the number of eight, superimposed and extending between the Mont Blanc massif and the massif of the Finsteraarhorn: these sheets being the overthrown folds of the wrinkled sedimentary covering. The general nature of the alpine structure

{Fig. 8}

will be understood from the presentation of it diagrammatically after Schmidt of Basel (Fig. 8). The section extends from north to south, and brings out the relations of the several recumbent folds. We must imagine almost the whole of these superimposed folds now removed from the central regions of the Alps by denudation,

Lugeon, loc. cit.

Schmidt, Ec. Geol. Helvetiae, vol. ix., No. 4.

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and leaving the underlying gneisses rising through the remains of Permian, Triassic, and Jurassic sediments; while to the north the great limestone mountains and further north still, the Prealpes, carved from the remains of the recumbent folds, now stand with almost as little resemblance to the vanished mountains as the memories of the past have to its former intense reality.