Part 20

On the western side of North America the work of mountain-building was, indeed, on the grandest scale. For long ages and through a succession of geological epochs, sedimentation had proceeded so that the accumulations of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic times had collected in the geosyncline formed by their own ever increasing weight. The site of the future Laramide range was in late Cretaceous times occupied by some 50,000 feet of sedimentary deposits; but the limit had apparently been attained, and at this time the Laramide range, as well as its southerly continuation into the United States, the Rockies, had their beginning. Chamberlin and Salisbury estimate that the height of the mountains developed in the Laramide range at this time was 20,000 feet, and that, owing to the further elevation which has since taken place, from 32,000 to 35,000 feet would be their present height if erosion had not reduced them. Thus on either side of the American continent we have the same forces at work, throwing up mountain ridges where the sediments had formerly been shed into the ocean.

These great events are of a rhythmic character; the crust, as it were, pulsating under the combined influences of sedimentation and denudation. The first involves downward movements under a gathering load, and ultimately a reversal of the movement to one of upheaval; the second factor, which throughout has been in

Chamberlin and Salisbury, Geology, 1906, iii., 163.

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operation as creator of the sediments, then intervenes as an assailant of the newly-raised mountains, transporting their materials again to the ocean, when the rhythmic action is restored to its first phase, and the age-long sequence of events must begin all over again.

It has long been inferred that compressive stress in the crust must be a primary condition of these movements. The wvork required to effect the upheavals must be derived from some preexisting source of energy. The phenomenon--intrinsically one of folding of the crust--suggests the adjustment of the earth-crust to a lessening radius; the fact that great mountain-building movements have simultaneously affected the entire earth is certainly in favour of the view that a generally prevailing cause is at the basis of the phenomenon.

The compressive stresses must be confined to the upper few miles of the crust, for, in fact, the downward increase of temperature and pressure soon confers fluid properties on the medium, and slow tangential compression results in hydrostatic pressure rather than directed stresses. Thus the folding visible in the mountain range, and the lateral compression arising therefrom, are effects confined to the upper parts of the crust.

The energy which uplifts the mountain is probably a surviving part of the original gravitational potential energy of the crust itself. It must be assumed that the crust in following downwards the shrinking subcrustal magma, develops immense compressive stresses in

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its materials, vast geographical areas being involved. When folding at length takes place along the axis of the elongated syncline of deposition, the stresses find relief probably for some hundreds of miles, and the region of folding now becomes compressed in a transverse direction. As an illustration, the Laramide range, according to Dawson, represents the reduction of a surface-belt 50 miles wide to one of 25 miles. The marvellous translatory movements of crustal folds from south to north arising in the genesis of the Swiss Alps, which recent research has brought to light, is another example of these movements of relief, which continue to take place perhaps for many millions of years after they are initiated.

The result of this yielding of the crust is a buckling of the surface which on the whole is directed upwards; but depression also is an attendant, in many cases at least, on mountain upheaval. Thus we find that the ocean floor is depressed into a syncline along the western coast of South America; a trough always parallel to the ranges of the Andes. The downward deflection of the crust is of course an outcome of the same compressive stresses which elevate the mountain.

The fact that the yielding of the crust is always situated where the sediments have accumulated to the greatest depth, has led to attempts from time to time of establishing a physical connexion between the one and the other. The best-known of these theories is that of Babbage and Herschel. This seeks the connexion in the rise of the

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geotherms into the sinking mass of sediment and the consequent increase of temperature of the earth-crust beneath. It will be understood that as these isogeotherms, or levels at which the temperature is the same, lie at a uniform distance from the surface all over the Earth, unless where special variations of conductivity may disturb them, the introduction of material pressed downwards from above must result in these materials partaking of the temperature proper to the depth to which they are depressed. In other words the geotherms rise into the sinking sediments, always, however, preserving their former average distance from the surface. The argument is that as this process undoubtedly involves the heating up of that portion of the crust which the sediments have displaced downwards, the result must be a local enfeeblement of the crust, and hence these areas become those of least resistance to the stresses in the crust.

When this theory is examined closely, we see that it only amounts to saying that the bedded rocks, which have taken the place of the igneous materials beneath, as a part of the rigid crust of the Earth, must be less able to withstand compressive stress than the average crust. For there has been no absolute rise of the geotherms, the thermal conductivities of both classes of materials differing but little. Sedimentary rock has merely taken the place of average crust-rock, and is subjected to the same average temperature and pressure prevailing in the surrounding crust. But are there any grounds for the

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assumption that the compressive resistance of a complex of sedimentary rocks is inferior to one of igneous materials? The metamorphosed siliceous sediments are among the strongest rocks known as regards resistance to compressive stress; and if limestones have indeed plastic qualities, it must be remembered that their average amount is only some 5 per cent. of the whole. Again, so far as rise of temperature in the upper crust may affect the question, a temperature which will soften an average igneous rock will not soften a sedimentary rock, for the reason that the effect of solvent denudation has been to remove those alkaline silicates which confer fusibility.

When, however, we take into account the radioactive content of the sediments the matter assumes a different aspect.

The facts as to the general distribution of radioactive substances at the surface, and in rocks which have come from considerable depths in the crust, lead us to regard as certain the widespread existence of heat-producing radioactive elements in the exterior crust of the Earth. We find, indeed, in this fact an explanation--at least in part--of the outflow of heat continually taking place at the surface as revealed by the rising temperature inwards. And we conclude that there must be a thickness of crust amounting to some miles, containing the radioactive elements.

Some of the most recent measurements of the quantities of radium and thorium in the rocks of igneous origin--e.g. granites, syenites, diorites, basalts, etc., show that the

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radioactive heat continually given out by such rocks amounts to about one millionth part of 0.6 calories per second per cubic metre of average igneous rock. As we have to account for the escape of about 0.0014 calorie per square metre of the Earth's surface per second (assuming the rise of temperature downwards, i.e. the "gradient" of temperature, to be one degree centigrade in 35 metres) the downward extension of such rocks might, prima facie, be as much as 19 kilometres.

About this calculation we have to observe that we assume the average radioactivity of the materials with which we have dealt at the surface to extend uniformly all the way down, i.e. that our experiments reveal the average radioactivity of a radioactive crust. There is much to be said for this assumption. The rocks which enter into the measurements come from all depths of the crust. It is highly probable that the less silicious, i.e. the more basic, rocks, mainly come from considerable depths; the more acid or silica-rich rocks, from higher levels in the crust. The radioactivity determined as the mean of the values for these two classes of rock closely agrees with that found for intermediate rocks, or rocks containing an intermediate amount of silica. Clarke contends that this last class of material probably represents the average composition of the Earth's crust so far as it has been explored by us.

The calorie referred to is the quantity of heat required to heat one gram of water, i.e. one cubic centimetre of water--through one degree centigrade.

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It is therefore highly probable that the value found for the mean radioactivity of acid and basic rocks, or that found for intermediate rocks, truly represents the radioactive state of the crust to a considerable depth. But it is easy to show that we cannot with confidence speak of the thickness of this crust as determinable by equating the heat outflow at the surface with the heat production of this average rock.

This appears in the failure of a radioactive layer, taken at a thickness of about 19-kilometres, to account for the deep-seated high temperatures which we find to be indicated by volcanic phenomena at many places on the surface. It is not hard to show that the 19-kilometre layer would account for a temperature no higher than about 270 deg. >C. at its base.

It is true that this will be augmented beneath the sedimentary deposits as we shall presently see; and that it is just in association with these deposits that deep-seated temperatures are most in evidence at the surface; but still the result that the maximum temperature beneath the crust in general attains a value no higher than 270 deg. C. is hardly tenable. We conclude, then, that some other source of heat exists beneath. This may be radioactive in origin and may be easily accounted for if the radioactive materials are more sparsely distributed at the base of the upper crust. Or, again, the heat may be primeval or original heat, still escaping from a cooling world. For our present purpose it does not much matter which view