Part 11

References on relations to civilized man.--Kennicott, in Anonymous, 1869: 166; Schwatka, 1885: 59-86; A. J. Stone, 1900: 57; Grant, 1903: 186; Cameron, 1912: 309; R. M. Anderson, 1913a: 5, 6; 1913b: 504, and 1938: 400; Stefánsson, 1913b: 27; Hornaday, 1914, +2+: 100; Wheeler, 1914: 56; Hewitt, 1921: 11-12, 59; Critchell-Bullock, 1931: 33; Godsell, 1937: 288; G. M. Allen, 1942: 298-299; Manning, 1942: 28; [U.S.] War Department, 1944: 77; Harper, 1949: 239; Banfield, 1951a: 1, 14-15.

Relations to Black Bears

It is hardly to be expected that Black Bears (Ursus americanus subsp.) commit any depredations on adult, able-bodied Caribou unless under very exceptional circumstances. Since they do not normally venture to an appreciable distance into the Barren Grounds, their contacts with Caribou are mainly in the forested zone. For an untold period in the past there has been a very interesting tripartite relationship between Bears, Caribou, and Caribou-eater Chipewyans about the south end of Nueltin Lake. For information concerning it I am indebted to Charles Schweder. The Indians of that area have been in the habit of killing large numbers of Caribou, especially on the spring and fall migrations, and leaving many of the bodies, or parts of the bodies, out in the "bush." The Bears have become accustomed to taking advantage of the situation, especially, perhaps, in the matter of fattening up for hibernation. This probably resulted in a certain concentration of the animals thereabouts. But of late years the local native population has seriously declined by reason of fatal illness and removal to other parts. Consequently, as Charles Schweder expressed it, there are no longer enough people there to feed the Bears! Three of the Chipewyans reported in late October, 1947, that they had lost a good many of their Caribou to the Bears during that season.

This recent change in the food situation about the south end of Nueltin Lake has apparently resulted in, or at least coincided with, an influx of Bears in the Windy River area, where they were unknown until 1944. During the next four years seven Bears were killed locally. The animals are said to have consumed about 70 Caribou bodies in the fall of 1944, and about 40 in the fall of 1947 within a few miles of the Windy River post; thus they became a somewhat serious factor in the human economy of the area. The Caribou is evidently the chief loser in this curious relationship, but even the Bear, which may be regarded as the chief beneficiary, suffers from man's retaliatory efforts.

Relations to foxes

The demand for Arctic Fox furs on the part of the fashionable women of the world sends the trapper on his winter rounds over the bleak and bitter Barren Grounds, where he depends upon his autumn kill of Caribou for sustenance for himself and his dogs as well as for fox bait. It is thus quite obvious where a large share of the responsibility for the dwindling numbers of the Caribou lies.

Both Arctic and Red Foxes (Alopex lagopus innuitus and Vulpes fulva subsp.) are among the scavengers that help to consume caribou bodies that are left unguarded in the wilds. According to Charles Schweder, foxes of both species seem to follow the Wolves, presumably in the hope of securing the leavings of their kills.

Charles also gave me an account of a remarkable sort of play between a Red Fox and a small buck Caribou. He had witnessed it in September, 1943, about 18 miles north of Windy River, from a distance of half a mile. The Fox would approach the Caribou closely; the latter would then walk up to the Fox, which would retreat, not allowing the Caribou to come close enough to touch it. Neither animal was afraid of the other. They kept up this performance for about 5 minutes. The Fox then went among some bushes, where the Caribou tried to follow it. The larger animal was still there, feeding, when Charles passed on out of sight. He regarded the whole performance as a matter of playfulness. His recital put me in mind at once of a slightly similar play between a Newfoundland Caribou and a Red Fox, as recorded by Millais (1907: 302-303). Stefánsson (1921: 623-624) describes a game of tag between an Arctic Fox and several yearlings of Rangifer pearyi on Melville Island.

References.--Blanchet, 1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929(1): 101; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 143; Munn, 1932: 278; Ingstad, 1933: 90, 157-159; Freuchen, 1935: 128; Banfield, 1951a: 36.

Relations to Wolves

Aside from man, the principal predatory enemy of the Barren Ground Caribou is undoubtedly the Wolf. A comparison of a distributional map of Caribou by Banfield (1949: 479, fig. 1) with a distributional map of Wolves by Goldman (1944: 414, fig. 14) indicates that the latter species is a considerably more plastic animal. No less than six subspecies of Wolves seem to occur in parts of the currently recognized range of a single subspecies of Caribou (Rangifer arcticus arcticus), as follows: Canis lupus arctos, Prince of Wales and Somerset islands; Canis lupus manningi, Baffin Island; Canis lupus bernardi, Victoria Island; Canis lupus hudsonicus, Keewatin, eastern Mackenzie, northern Manitoba, and northeastern Saskatchewan; Canis lupus mackenzii, northern Mackenzie; Canis lupus occidentalis, southern Mackenzie and northern Alberta and Saskatchewan.

The Keewatin Tundra Wolf (C. l. hudsonicus) is presumably the only one that concerns us here. However, its extension into the forested zone of northern Manitoba and northeastern Saskatchewan, as indicated on Goldman's map, is still problematical. Goldman's text (1944: 428-429) is quite indefinite on this point. There are such distinct differences between the general fauna of the Arctic Zone and that of the Hudsonian Zone that the Wolf of the latter zone may well prove to be differentiable from hudsonicus, whose type locality is at Schultz Lake in west central Keewatin. It is an interesting question whether any Wolves of the Barren Grounds follow the Caribou southward into the timbered country in the fall; likewise, whether any individual Wolves of the latter region accompany the Caribou on their spring migration out into the Barrens. Little light on the subject seems available at present. There is no doubt, however, that a good many Wolves remain during the winter on parts of the Barren Grounds that have been deserted by the Caribou at that season. Furthermore, at the time of the spring migration, mature Wolves of the forest zone would be restricted to their home territory by the necessity of caring for their young ones.

A Wolf is by no means able to capture a Caribou at will. During the season of open water the latter may effect a ready escape by plunging into the nearest river or lake and crossing to the other side. There is reason to believe that islands provide a good sanctuary during the summer (Seton, 1929, +3+: 108-109; Gavin, 1945: 228). In the winter the Caribou must depend primarily on its fleetness of foot. Even the fawns are reputed to be able to outdistance Wolves in a chase that is not too prolonged. An adult, if brought to bay after a long chase, is probably able to stand off a single Wolf indefinitely. Its powerful hoofs are its principal means of defense. Even if the antlers are brought into play, they are effective only during the limited period when they are fullgrown, hard, and free of velvet. When two or more Wolves manage to bring a Caribou to bay, the outcome is probably almost invariably in their favor. Charles Schweder has never known a Caribou to kill one of these predators in defending itself. In several cases reported by Fred Schweder, Jr., the last stand was made on the ice of lakes. The Caribou itself may choose such a place, as if aware that it may be more sure-footed on the ice than its enemy.

After listening to wolf tales by residents of the frontier settlements rather than by real men of the "bush," one might almost expect to see a couple of these bloodthirsty animals harrying the rear of every band of Caribou and keeping up a relentless pursuit. However, during a sojourn of six months on one of the best Caribou ranges in Keewatin, where trapping has very little effect on Wolves, I saw just one of these animals alive, heard the howling on several occasions, and noted a single Caribou that had probably been killed by them. It is far from a common experience for the resident trappers to witness actual pursuit by Wolves or even to find their kills. The following instances, related by Fred Schweder, Jr., comprised his only direct observations on Wolves in pursuit of Caribou up to and including 1947, when he was eighteen years old.

During the northward migration in May, 1945, a silent black Wolf pursued a band of 100 Caribou over the ice of Windy Bay. At one time it came within 100 feet, but thereafter they forged ahead. After half a mile the band split up, and the Wolf desisted. In October, 1946, Fred noticed a Caribou fighting off two Wolves on the ice of Nueltin Lake near its outlet. It used both horns and hoofs against its attackers. While one Wolf was in front, the other would try to get in the rear of the Caribou and hamstring it. This went on for two hours until darkness hid the scene. The next morning the Caribou was dead and half eaten. On October 16, 1947, a white Wolf was seen in pursuit of four fast-moving Caribou near Simons' Lake. It was about half a mile in their rear, and presently halted, probably by reason of catching sight of Fred.

November 7, 1947, was a blizzardy day; the air was full of drifting snow. Under these conditions a gray Wolf chased a buck and a doe right into the dooryard of one of Fred's trapping camps 10 miles north of Windy River. It was only about 30 feet behind them. When the buck broke through the ice of a little creek, the Wolf went right past it in pursuit of the doe. The latter nearly ran into Fred's toboggan, and he shot it at a distance of 20 feet. The Wolf came within 40 feet, but by the time it was recognized as not just another Caribou, it was 100 feet away. Fred then shot but merely wounded it, the sight being off his rifle. Meanwhile the buck escaped, but 3 miles away Fred met with it again and secured it. He recognized it as the same animal because at both encounters it was limping from a previous wound and was hornless as well.

In late November Fred found two fullgrown bucks and a doe on the ice of Windy Lake, where they had been killed by Wolves. The bucks were antlered and had probably met their end several weeks previously. Yet their flesh was so musky and unpalatable, in consequence of the rutting season, that it had not been devoured. A long trail of blood and hair led to the spot where the doe had fallen, apparently a couple of weeks previously; it was still only half eaten.

In Fred's opinion, Caribou are apprehensive of sandy eskers as the haunt of Wolves, and do not linger there.

On October 15 Charles Schweder pointed out the body of a Caribou in a little pond in the delta area at the head of Simons' Lake. He considered it killed by Wolves some weeks previously; its antlers were in the velvet, and it had been eaten only about the head and hind quarters as it lay in the water.

Joe Chambers, a trapper of Goose Creek (south of Churchill), stated that Wolves select the fattest Caribou, and that during the winter of 1946-47 they had been devouring only such choice parts as the tongue and the unborn young.

Caribou bodies are the primary bait for Wolves and Foxes on the Barren Grounds. Two traps are commonly placed at each carcass.

Up to a couple of centuries ago, when the baneful effect of civilized man began to be felt, the Caribou throve and multiplied to a point where they probably strained the grazing capacity of the Barren Grounds. Neither primitive man nor the Wolf had any serious effect on the size or condition of the herds. The Caribou were numbered by millions, and they doubtless owed their vigor and their success as a species in no small measure to their friendly enemy, the Wolf. Through long ages the latter had tended to eliminate the weaklings, the sickly, and the less alert individuals, leaving the fitter animals to propagate their kind. Here was a fine example of natural selection operating to the advantage of the Caribou. Thus the Wolf may be safely considered a benefactor of the species as a whole--a regulator and protector of its vitality.

There are only two regions of the world where Caribou (or Reindeer) have not long shared their territory with the Wolf--Spitsbergen and the Queen Charlotte Islands. And what sort of situation do we find there? Instead of thriving in the absence of such a natural predator, the animals of both regions are the runts of the whole Caribou-Reindeer tribe, and those of the Queen Charlottes have become virtually or wholly extinct (cf. Banfield, 1949: 481-482). Furthermore, the Newfoundland Caribou suffered a very serious decline after the Newfoundland Wolf became extinct at about the beginning of the present century. The lesson is obvious: it is folly for man to imagine that he can benefit the Caribou by eliminating the Wolves.

It is virtually axiomatic that no predatory species (other than modern man) exterminates its own food supply. Long ago nature must have established a fairly definite ratio between the populations of the Wolf and the Caribou. Although a certain fluctuation of that ratio could be expected from time to time, each fluctuation would be followed by a return to more or less normal conditions. The trend of evolution has doubtless been toward perfecting the Wolf in its ability to capture the Caribou, but at the same time toward perfecting the Caribou in its ability to escape the Wolf. Unequal progress of this sort on the part of the two species would presumably have been rather disastrous to the one or the other. But it is nature's way to have preserved a proper balance between the abilities of the two species, and thus between their populations. This balance (a rather delicate one) has probably been upset to some extent by the advent of civilized man with his devices to the Barren Grounds.

The Caribou "exemplify the survival of the fittest; none but the perfect are allowed to live and breed, hence their perfection. We believe that the wolf is in no small degree responsible for this high standard, and that were he killed off the species as a whole would suffer." (Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 161.)

"It is doubtful if the efforts of white or native hunters are of any importance whatever in the control of wolves in the caribou country, or could, under present circumstances ever be of any importance." (Clarke, 1940: 109).

References.--Franklin, 1823: 242, 327, 344, 486, 487; John Ross, 1835a: 402, 530, 534, 564; Back, 1836: 128-129; Simpson, 1843: 232; Armstrong, 1857: 395, 480-481, 488, 525; Osborn, 1865: 227-228, 231, 232; Kumlien, 1879: 53, 54; Gilder, 1881: 61; Bompas, 1888: 60; Collinson, 1889: 244; Pike, 1917 (1892): 56-58; Whitney, 1896: 239; Jones, 1899: 374-375; Preble, 1902: 41, and 1908: 214; Hanbury, 1904: 89; MacFarlane, 1905: 692-693; Amundsen, 1908, +1+: 102; Seton, 1911: 225-226; R. M. Anderson, 1913b: 516; Stefánsson, 1913a: 93, and 1921: 248-249, 475-476; Blanchet, 1925: 34; Mallet, 1926: 79; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 51; Seton, 1929, +1+: 344-346, and +3+: 108-109; Blanchet, 1930: 54-55; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 159-162; Hoare, 1930: 22; Kitto, 1930: 89; Jacobi, 1931: 240-241; Harper, 1932: 31; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 33, 35, 36, 81, 82, 84, 85; Ingstad, 1933: 157-159, 165-166, 207, 302-304, 306-307; Hornby, 1934: 106, 108; Freuchen, 1935: 93, 120-122; Murie, 1939: 245; Clarke, 1940: 107-109; Manning, 1942: 29, and 1943a: 55; Downes, 1943: 262; Young, 1944: 236-238, 243; Yule, 1948: 288; Harper, 1949: 230-231, 239; Banfield, 1951a: 37-41; Anonymous, 1952: 263-265.

Relations to birds of prey