Chapter 20; Except That in This Case No Chemical Neutralization Is

possible, since common salt cannot be changed by any practically feasible means. It must be removed by leaching, and this, in the humid countries in which such reclamations have chiefly been made, is usually done by the agency of rains, aided by ditching. The “polder” lands thus reclaimed along the shores of the North Sea, from Belgium to Prussia, are especially esteemed for their productiveness, doubtless owing to the alluvium of the numerous rivers tributary to that sea, which is distributed along its shores and in the numerous inlets and bays. The tides are of course excluded by dikes provided with gates opening outward, so as to permit of the outflow of rain- or irrigation-water used for leaching purposes.

Out of reach of stream alluvium no exceptional fertility is to be expected of seashore lands, which then commonly assume the form of sand dunes or bars, incapable of nourishing any cultural vegetation. Of the latter, the groups listed below as tolerant of alkali salts, may also be considered with reference to reclaimed seashore lands; the first cereal to succeed being usually barley, the first root crop, beets. Asparagus is also available while salt is being leached out.

THE VEGETATION OF ALKALI LANDS.

The general character of alkali-land vegetation is not unlike that of saline seashore lands; some species of plants are common to both, but the alkali lands harbor a much greater variety of plants, owing to the differences in climates and soils as well as to the nature of the impregnating salts. Moreover, owing to the very causes which underlie the presence of these salts, viz, aridity, the xerophile or dry-land character of the alkali-land flora is much more pronounced than that of the saline seashore vegetation. In view of the very complex conditions, the discussion of the alkali-flora is of necessity much more complex than that of the marine group; and the data for its full elucidation with respect to the nature of the soils and salts are as yet very incomplete.

RECLAIMABLE AND IRRECLAIMABLE ALKALI LANDS AS DISTINGUISHED BY THEIR NATURAL VEGETATION.

While, as shown above (chapter 20), the adaptation or non-adaptation of particular alkali lands to certain cultures may be determined by sampling the soil and subjecting the leachings to chemical analysis, it is obviously desirable that some other means, if possible available to the farmer himself, should be found to determine the reclaimability and adaptation of such lands for general or special cultures.

In alkali lands, as in others, the natural plant-growth affords such means, both as regards the quality and quantity of the saline ingredients. The most superficial observation shows that certain plants indicate extremely strong alkali lands where they occupy the ground alone; others indicate pre-eminently the presence of common salt; the presence or absence of still others form definite or probable indications of reclaimability or non-reclaimability. Many such characteristic plants are well known to and readily recognized by the farmers of the alkali districts. “Alkali weeds” are commonly spoken of almost everywhere; but the meaning of this term—i. e., the kind of plant designated thereby—varies materially from place to place, according to climate as well as the quality of the soil. It is obvious that if these characteristic plants were definitely observed, described and named, while also ascertaining the amount and kind of alkali they indicate as existing in the land, lists could be formed for the several regions, which would indicate, in a manner intelligible to the farmer himself, the kind and degree of impregnation with which he would have to deal in the reclamation work; thus enabling him to go to work on the basis of his own judgment, without previous chemical examination.

A study of the lands of California having this purpose in view, was undertaken in the years 1898 and 1899 by the California Station; but lack of funds prevented its prosecution beyond the ascertainment of those plants the abundant occurrence of which prove the land to be irreclaimable without the use of the universal remedy, viz, underdrainage, which on the large scale is usually beyond the means of the land-seeker. The botanical field work and collection of soil samples was carried out by Mr. Jos. Burtt Davy; the chemical work, as heretofore, being done by Dr. R. H. Loughridge. The results here reported are therefore essentially their joint work. It is hoped that in the future, a more comprehensive study and close comparison of the native vegetation with the chemical determination of the quality and kind of alkali corresponding to certain plants, or groups of plants, naturally occurring on the land, may enable us to come to a sufficiently close estimate of the nature and capabilities of the latter from the native vegetation alone, or with the aid of test plants purposely grown, for the farmers’ purposes.

Plants Indicating Irreclaimable Lands.—The plants herein-after mentioned and figured are, then, to be understood as indicating, whenever they occupy the ground as an abundant and luxuriant growth, that such land is irreclaimable for ordinary crops, unless underdrained for the purpose of washing out surplus salts. The occurrence merely of scattered, more or less stunted individuals of these plants, while a sure indication of the presence of alkali salts, does not necessarily show that the land is irreclaimable.

The plants which may best serve as such indicators in California are the following:

Tussock-grass (Sporobolus airoides Torr.), Fig. 82.

Bushy Samphire (Allenrolfea occidentalis [Wats.] Ktze.), Fig. 83.

Dwarf Samphire (Salicornia subterminalis Parish, and other species), Fig. 84.

Saltwort (Suaeda torreyana Wats., and S. suffrutescens, Wats.), Fig. 85.

Greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus [Hook.] Torr.), Fig. 86.

Alkali-heath (Frankenia grandifolia campestris Gray), Fig. 87.

Cressa (Cressa truxillensis Choisy), Fig. 88, perhaps identical with C. cretica auct.

Saltgrass (Distichlis spicata), Fig. 89.

TUSSOCK-GRASS (Sporobolus airoides, Torr.); Fig. 82.

(“Bunch grass” of New Mexico).

The three sets of Tussock-grass soil which have been analyzed show that the total amount of all salts present is in no case less than 49,000 pounds per acre, to a depth of four feet; and that it sometimes reaches the extraordinarily high figure of 499,000 pounds. Of these amounts the neutral salts (Glauber’s salt and common salt) are usually in the heaviest proportion (Glauber’s salt, 19,600 to 323,000 pounds per acre; common salt, 3,500 to 172,800); the corrosive salsoda varying from 3,000 to 44,000 pounds.—Tussock-grass apparently cannot persist in ground which is periodically flooded. It is of special importance because it is an acceptable forage for stock.

Tussock-grass is a prevalent alkali-indicator in the hot, arid portions of the interior, from the upper San Joaquin Valley, the Mojave desert, and southward; also through southern Nevada and Utah as far east as Kansas and Nebraska. In the San Joaquin Valley it has not been found farther north than the Tulare plains, although east of Reno it occurs near Reno. Coville observes that in the Death Valley region “it is confined principally to altitudes below 1,000 meters” (3,280 feet). Hillman, however, reports it from near Reno, Nevada, at an altitude which cannot be much less than 4,500 feet.

The tussocks formed by this grass, which are unfortunately not shown in the figure, sometimes appear as veritable little grass trees, and when denuded by the browsing of cattle seem like trunks 18 and 20 inches high. It is therefore very easily recognized; but it should be noted that in view of the extraordinary range of its tolerance, shown above, its scattered occurrence does not necessarily indicate irreclaimable land.

BUSHY SAMPHIRE. (Allenrolfea occidentalis [Wats.] G. Ktze.) FIG. 83..

This plant is locally called greasewood, but as this name is much more commonly used for Sarcobatus vermiculatus, it seems best to call Allenrolfea “bushy samphire,” as it closely resembles the true samphire (Salicornia).

Bushy Samphire usually grows in low sinks, in clay soil which in winter is excessively wet, and in summer becomes a “dry bog.” Wherever the plant grows luxuriantly the salt content is invariably high, the total salts varying from 327,000 pounds per acre, to a depth of three feet, to 494,520 pounds in four feet. The salts consist mainly of Glauber’s and common salts (a maximum of about 275,000 pounds each); salsoda varies from 2,360 to 4,800 pounds per acre. The percentage of common salt and total salts is higher than for any other plant investigated, and the content of Glauber’s salt is also excessive. The areas over which this plant grows must therefore be considered among the most hopeless of alkali lands, for although its salts are “white,” submergence during winter precludes the growth of Australian saltbushes. Full underdrainage alone could reclaim the soil-areas it occupies. Bushy Samphire is common on low-lying alkali lands in the upper San Joaquin Valley, California, and extends northward along the eastern slopes of the Coast Range to Suisun Bay. It is also abundant in the Death Valley region, apparently overlapping the southward range of the Sarcobatus, the greasewood properly so-called.

DWARF SAMPHIRE (Salicornia subterminalis, Parish, and other species of the interior); Fig. 84.

A. Much-branched form.

B. Slender form.

C. Flower with the perianth removed showing the simple pistil and the two stamens.

D. Portion of flowering spike, showing two joints. The flowers are impressed in the joints in opposite clusters of three. In each cluster the middle flower stands slightly above the two laterals as shown in the lower joint.]

The three or four species of Dwarf Samphire which grow in the interior valleys of the State are not usually very abundant, save locally. Wherever the species do occur, however, they may be considered as indicating excessively saline soils. Dwarf Samphire soil has shown a total salt content of 441,880 pounds per acre in a depth of four feet. The neutral Glauber’s salt amounts to 314,000 pounds, almost as much as in Tussock-grass soil; common salt up to 125,640 pounds while the salsoda varies from 2,200 to 12,000. We may consider the plant as indicative of almost the highest percentage of common salt, Glauber’s salt and total salts. Like the preceding species it indicates land strongly charged with salts, more especially common salt, and susceptible to cultivation only after reclamation by underdrainage.

Salicornia subterminalis, S. herbacea (L.), S. mucronata, and another species, all occurring inland, differ materially in habit and botanical characters from the one so conspicuous in submerged salt marshes along the seashore; but all alike indicate strongly saline soils, reclaimable only by thorough drainage.

SALTWORT (Suaeda torreyana, Wats., S. suffrutescens, Wats., and perhaps one other species); Fig. 85.

Samples of saltwort soil from Bakersfield and Byron Springs, California, taken to a depth of one foot and three feet respectively, show that this plant grows luxuriantly in a soil containing 130,000 pounds of total salts per acre in the first foot, and with 10,480 pounds of the noxious salsoda, and 39,760 pounds of common salt in three feet; while only a sparse growth is found on soils containing only 3,700 pounds of salts in three feet. It thus appears to indicate a lower percentage of salsoda than does Greasewood, but a higher percentage than Bushy Samphire. Further investigation is necessary to determine the exact relation of the different salts to the growth of the plant, and as to whether carbonates occur in large quantity; but enough data have been gathered to show that a luxuriant growth of Suaeda torreyana indicates a soil reclaimable only by thorough-drainage.

Suaeda torreyana occurs on low alkali lands throughout the State of California, from San Bernardino to Honey Lake, in the desert sinks, and in the Great Valley, in appropriate locations. Sometimes it is replaced by S. suffrutescens and perhaps other species, but all the saltworts appear to grow in similar habitats, and it is probable that the soil-conditions are practically the same for all these species. They indicate land too heavily impregnated for the growth of ordinary crops, but which will perhaps allow the Australian saltbush to succeed.

GREASEWOOD (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) [Hook. Torr.]; FIG. 86.

This, the true Greasewood of the desert region east of the Sierra Nevada, and not either of the plants known under that name in the San Joaquin Valley and in Southern California, invariably indicates a heavy impregnation of the land with black alkali or carbonate of soda. Since, as before stated, black alkali is most likely to occur in low ground, we frequently find the true greasewood forming bright green patches in the swales, and on the benches of periodic streams, as well as on the borders of alkali ponds or lakes. Stock unaccustomed to it will frequently go to these patches on a run, only to turn away badly disappointed after taking a few bites, the plant being both bitter and salty.

A. Appearance of a branch when not in blossom. B. Spiny-branchlet from the same. C. Branchlet bearing cones of male flowers. D. Cone of male flowers, enlarged. E. Branch bearing fruits. F. Cluster of fruits, enlarged. G. Vertical section through a fruit, showing the seed with its curved embryo, (enlarged).

Where a luxuriant growth of this plant is found, the soil may contain from 38,000 to 117,000 pounds of total salts per acre, of which sometimes nearly half is carbonate of soda; the content of common salt is usually low, and Glauber’s salt or sulfate of soda, sometimes with considerable proportion of epsom salt, forms a variable proportion of the total.

Greasewood is distinctly a plant of the Great Basin, only reaching California in the adjacent counties of Lassen, Alpine, Mono, and northern Inyo. It is very abundant on the lower levels of Honey Lake valley, Cal.

The Sarcobatus is chiefly found on silty or sandy soils of good native fertility (see page 445, chapter 22), so that when its excess of salsoda is neutralized by means of gypsum, the land becomes very productive. Unfortunately the cost of the amount of gypsum required to render such soils adapted to the tolerance of most culture plants is often prohibitive; but where the correction of only small spots is called for, the “white alkali” resulting from the gypsum treatment would be tolerated by many culture plants.

ALKALI-HEATH (Frankenia grandifolia campestris Gray); Fig. 87.

Alkali-heath is perhaps the most widely distributed of any of the California alkali plants. Its perennial, deep-rooting habit of growth, and flexible, somewhat wiry rootstock, which enables it to persist even in cultivated ground, render it a valuable plant as an alkali indicator. The salt-content where Alkali-heath grows luxuriantly is invariably high, ranging from 64,000 to 282,000 pounds per acre; salsoda varies from 680 to 19,590 pounds; common salt ranges from 5,000 to 10,000 pounds. Such soils would not be benefited by the application of gypsum, as the salts are already largely in the neutral state. Of useful plants only Saltbushes and Tussock-grass are likely to flourish in such lands, when not too wet.

While Alkali-heath is thus one of the most alkali-tolerant plants, it is at the same time capable of growth with a minimum of salts (total salts 3,700 pounds, salsoda 680 pounds). Where only a sparse growth of this plant occurs, therefore, the land should not be condemned until a chemical examination of the soil has been made.

Alkali-heath is found on soils of very varying physical texture and degrees of moisture; while on soils of uniform texture and moisture-conditions, but differing in chemical composition, it varies with the varying salt-content.

It has been found that Australian saltbush (Atriplex semibaccata) can be successfully grown on the “goose-lands,” of the Sacramento Valley, on soil producing a medium crop of Alkali-heath; it remains to be shown whether it will do equally well on soils producing a dense and luxuriant growth of the same.

Alkali-heath is widely distributed throughout the interior valleys of California; a closely related form grows in the salt-marshes of the sea-coast.

CRESSA (Cressa cretica truxillensis Choisy); Fig. 88.

Cressa soils show a low percentage of the noxious salsoda, but comparatively heavy total salts (161,000 to 282,000 pounds per acre.) Common salt varies from 5,760 to 20,840 pounds per acre in four feet. The maximum is lower than in the case of Alkali-heath, but Cressa seems to be much more closely restricted to strong alkali than does the former species. Cressa appears to be as widely distributed through the interior valleys of California as Alkali-heath. The Cressa is a cosmopolitan plant, occurring, as its name indicates, on the Ionian Islands, as well as in North Africa, Syria, and other arid countries of the world.

SALTGRASS, Distichlis spicata.—This grass is of world-wide distribution, and always indicates a sensible content of soluble salts, without apparently any special preference for either of the three most commonly occurring ones. Its maximum tolerance, as will be seen by the preceding table, is very high, yet at the same time it will grow luxuriantly on lands containing so little that other saline plants like the samphires, saltwort or greasewood will refuse to grow. On the shores of Honey Lake, California, it may often be seen incrusted with the salts of the water concentrated by a long season of drought, yet maintaining life, though somewhat stunted. On lands lightly impregnated, stock will often eat it quite freely, so that it has been mistaken for Bermuda grass, to which its habit and foliage bears some resemblance. But Bermuda grass, while not as sensitive to alkali as most forage grasses, will probably not bear much over 12,000 pounds per acre.

The mere presence of the salt grass cannot therefore be taken as a definite indication of anything more than that there is an unusual amount of salts in the soil; whether or not there is more than will be tolerated by the ordinary culture-plants, must be judged either from the accompanying plants, or by experiment or analysis.

Relative Tolerance of the Different Species.—The following table shows in systematic order the tolerance of the several plants discussed above, for the different salts, so far as the data available permit. The column marked optimum shows under what proportions of salts the plants grew in about equal luxuriance, therefore under, apparently, the most favorable conditions. Both above and below the proportions mentioned in that column, the luxuriance (size) and (usually) the abundance of the plants was less; showing that while excessive amounts of salts depressed their welfare, yet they also suffered when the proportions dropped below a certain point. Whether this was partly or wholly the result of competition with other plants, is an unsettled question.

TABLE SHOWING MAXIMUM, OPTIMUM, AND MINIMUM OF SALTS TOLERATED BY EACH OF THE SEVERAL ALKALI PLANTS. -------------------------------+----------------------------- | Pounds Per Acre in feet. +-----------+--------+-------- | Optimum. |Maximum.|Minimum. -------------------------------+-----------+--------+-------- Total Salts. | | | Bushy Samphire | 494,320 | 494,520| 135,060 Dwarf Samphires | 441,880 | 441,880| 441,880 Alkali-heath |{ 281,960}| 499,040| 3,720 |{ 64,300}| | Cressa | 281,960 | 281,960| 161,160 Saltworts | 130,000 | 153,020| 3,720 Greasewood | 58,560 | 58,560| 2,400 Tussock-grass | 49,000 | 499,040| 49,000 | | | Carbonate (Salsoda). | | | Tussock-grass | 23,000 | 44,460| 3,040 Alkali-heath | { 19,590}| 19,590| 680 | { 680}| | Greasewood | 18,720 | 18,720| 1,280 Dwarf Samphires | 12,120 | 12,120| 2,200 Saltworts | 10,480 | 12,120| 1,120 Cressa | 5,440 | 5,440| 680 Bushy Samphire | 4,800 | 4,800| 1,500 | | | Chloride (Common Salt). | | | Bushy Samphire | 212,080 | 275,160| 56,800 Dwarf Samphires | 125,640 | 125,640| 125,640 Saltworts | 39,760 | 52,900| 1,040 Cressa | 20,840 | 20,840| 5,760 Alkali-heath |{ 10,180}| 212,080| 1,040 |{ 5,760}| | Tussock-grass | 6,200 | 172,800| 3,530 Greasewood | 3,680 | 3,680| 160 | | | Sulphates (Glauber’s salt). | | | Dwarf Samphires | 314,040 | 314,040| 314,040 Bushy Samphire | 277,640 | 277,640| 50,080 Cressa | 275,520 | 275,520| 134,880 Alkali-heath |{ 275,520}| 323,200| 1,560 |{ 34,530}| | Saltworts | 44,160 | 104,040| 1,560 Greasewood | 36,160 | 36,160| 960 Tussock Grass | 19,640 | 323,200| 19,640 -------------------------------+-----------+--------+--------

This plant grows with equal luxuriance in soils containing only 680 pounds of carbonates.

APPENDICES.

APPENDIX A.

DIRECTIONS FOR TAKING SOIL SAMPLES. ISSUED BY THE CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION.

In taking soil specimens for examination by the Agricultural Experiment Station, the following directions should be carefully observed; always bearing in mind that the examination, and especially the analysis, of a soil is a long and tedious operation, which cannot be indefinitely repeated.

First.—Do not take samples at random from any points on the land, but consider what are the two or three chief varieties of soil which, with their intermixtures, make up the cultivable area, and carefully sample these, each separately; then, if necessary, sample your particular soil, noting its relation to these typical ones.

Second.—As a rule, and whenever possible, take specimens from spots that have not been cultivated, nor are otherwise likely to have been changed from their original condition of “virgin soils”—e.g., not from ground frequently trodden over, such as roadsides, cattle-paths, or small pastures, squirrel holes, stumps, or even the foot of trees, or spots that have been washed by rains or streams, so as to have experienced a notable change, and not be a fair representative of their kind.

Third.—Observe and record carefully the normal vegetation, trees, herbs, grass, etc., of the average virgin land; avoid spots showing unusual growth, whether in kind or in quality, as such are likely to have received some animal manure, or other outside addition.

Fourth.—Always take specimens from more than one spot judged to be a fair representative of the soil intended to be examined, as an additional guarantee of a fair average, and mix thoroughly the earth taken from the same depths.

Fifth.—After selecting a proper spot, pull up the plants growing on it, and sweep off the surface with a broom or brush to remove half-decayed vegetable matter not forming part of the soil as yet. Dig or bore a vertical hole, like a post-hole, and note at what depth a change of tint occurs. In the humid region, or in humid lowlands of the arid, this will usually happen at from six to nine inches from the surface, and a sample taken to that depth will constitute the “soil.”

In California and the arid region generally, very commonly no change of tint occurs within the first foot, sometimes not for several feet; hence, especially in sandy lands, the “soil” sample will usually be taken to that depth, so as to represent the average of the first foot from the surface down.

Samples taken merely from the surface, or from the bottom of a hole, have no definite meaning, and will not be examined or reported upon.

Place the “soil” sample upon a cloth (jute bagging should not be used for the purpose, as its fibres, dust, etc., become intermixed with the soil) or paper, break it up, mix thoroughly, and put at least a quart of it in a sack or package properly labeled, for examination.

This specimen will, ordinarily, constitute the “soil.” Should the change of color occur at a less depth than six inches, the fact should be noted, but the specimen taken to that depth nevertheless, since it is the least to which rational culture can be supposed to reach.

In the same way take a sample of each foot separately to a depth of at least three feet; preferably four or five, especially in the case of alkali soils, or suspected hardpan.

Sixth.—Whatever lies beneath the line of change, or below the minimum depth of six inches, will constitute the “subsoil.” But should the change of color occur at a greater depth than twelve inches, the “soil” specimen should nevertheless be taken to the depth of twelve inches only, which is the limit of ordinary tillage; then another specimen from that depth down to the line of change, and then the “subsoil” specimens beneath that line.

The depth down to which the last should be taken will depend on circumstances. It is always necessary to know what constitutes the foundation of a soil, down to the depth of three feet at least, since the question of drainage, resistance to drought, root-penetration, etc., will depend essentially upon the nature of the substratum. In the arid region, where roots frequently penetrate to depths of ten or twelve feet or even more, it is frequently necessary to at least probe the land to that depth or deeper. The specimens should be taken in other respects precisely like that of the surface soil, each to represent the average of not more than twelve inches. Those of the materials lying below the third foot from the surface may sometimes be taken at some ditch or other easily accessible point, and if possible should not be broken up like the other specimens.

If there is hardpan or heavy clay present, an unbroken lump of it should be sent, for much depends on its character.

Seventh.—When in the case of cultivated lands, it is desired to ascertain the cause of differences in the behavior or success of a crop on different portions of the same field or soil area, do not send only the soil which bears unsatisfactory growth, but also the one bearing normal, good growth, for comparison. In all such cases, try to ascertain by your own observations whether or not the fault is simply in the subsoil or substrata; in which case a sample of surface soil sent for examination would be of little use. In such examinations the soil probe will be of great service, and save much digging or boring.

Eighth.—Specimens of alkali or salty soils should preferably be taken towards the end of the dry season, when the surface layers will contain the largest amount of salts. A special sample of the first six inches should in that case be taken separately by means of a post-hole auger, and then, in a different spot close by, a hole four feet deep should be bored, and the earth from the entire four-foot column intimately mixed before the usual quart sample is taken. Samples of the plants growing on the land should in all cases be included in the package, as they indicate very closely the agricultural character of the land.

All samples taken while the land is wet should be air-dried before sending; in the case of alkali soils this is absolutely essential.

Ninth.—All peculiarities of the soil and subsoil, their behavior under tillage and cultivation in various crops, in wet and dry seasons, their location, position, “lay,” every circumstance, in fact, that can throw any light on their agricultural qualities or peculiarities, should be carefully noted, and the notes sent by mail. Without such notes, specimens cannot ordinarily be considered as justifying the amount of labor involved in their examination. Any fault found with the behavior of the land in cultivation or crop-bearing should be specially mentioned and described. The conditions governing crop-production are so complex that even with the fullest information and the most careful work, cases are found in which as yet the best experts will be at fault.

APPENDIX B.

SUMMARY DIRECTIONS FOR SOIL—EXAMINATION IN THE FIELD OR ON THE FARM.

While the general principles upon which the cultural value and adaptations of lands should be judged, have been given in the text of this volume, it seems advisable to summarize their practical application to land examination here, for convenient reference.

The directions given in Appendix A for the sampling of soils having been carried out, the samples so taken may be subjected to farther examination by any intelligent farmer to good purpose, and often with great saving of time and expense.

Spread the samples from the several depths in regular order upon a table or bench, and note the differences in color and texture apparent to the eye or touch, and whether they will or will not crush readily between the fingers, wet and dry. Whatever the fingers can do, can similarly be done by the harrow, cultivator, clod crusher or roller.

The tilling qualities of the surface soil and immediate subsoil are the first and most important matter to be ascertained; including especially their behavior to water. Place some air-dried lumps in a shallow dish with a little water; observe whether they take up the water quickly or slowly, and whether in so doing the lumps fall to pieces or retain their form. Slow penetration, and maintenance of form, will at once indicate a soil somewhat refractory and difficult to till; while if the water is taken up easily and the lump falls to pieces, the land is easily cultivated and will absorb the rainfall and irrigation water readily. The darkening of the tint on wetting will also give an approximate idea of its humus-content.

Then take a wetted lump and work it between the fingers and on the palm of the hand, until its “stickiness” or adhesiveness ceases to increase. This “hand test” is of first importance and in skillful hands will largely supersede the need of elaborate mechanical analysis. It will at once enable the operator to classify the soil as a light or heavy loam, clay loam or clay soil; it will show directly what will be the result of plowing the land when wet, the liability to the formation of a plowsole, and whether a single or a double team will generally be needed to cultivate it properly. Also whether stock can be allowed to pasture the land soon after rain. Comparison with the known land of neighbors will also thus become easy, and in a measure the crops best adapted to the physical qualities of the soil, subsoil and substrata, taking into account their respective depths, will at once be at least approximately determined. The presence of coarse and fine sand in greater or less amounts will also be thus readily ascertained, allowing estimates of the percolative properties; the latter can, of course, be more practically tested in the field, in the manner described in