Science and Practice in Farm Cultivation

PART IV.. How to Grow Good Corn.

HOW TO GROW GOOD CORN.

XXIV. Nature of Corn 161 XXV. Wheat: its Origin and Acclimatization 163 XXVI. The Wild Oat as the Origin of the Cultivated Varieties 168 XXVII. On the supposed Origin of Barley and Rye 176 XXVIII. Epiphytical Parasites (Vegetable Blights) of Corn Crops 180 XXIX. Insects (Animal Blights) affecting Corn Crops 192 XXX. Science in the Cultivation of Corn 204 XXXI. On Harvesting Corn 213

PART V.. How to Grow Good Fences.

HOW TO GROW GOOD FENCES.

XXXII. On the Nature of Fences 217 XXXIII. On the Plants for “Live” Fences 220 XXXIV. On the Hearing and Planting of Hedges 227 XXXV. Weeds of Hedge-row Fences 234 XXXVI. On Hedge-row Timber 239 XXXVII. On the Vermin of Fences 246 XXXVIII. On the Management of Hedge-row Fences 254 XXXIX. Covenants with regard to Fences, &c. 259

PART VI.. How to Grow Good Timber.

HOW TO GROW GOOD TIMBER.

XL. On the Value of Timber for Ornament and Profit 265 XLI. On the Kinds of Timber best adapted for different Situations 274 XLII. On the British Oak 278 XLIII. On the Chestnut and Walnut 291 XLIV. On the Elm 296 XLV. On the Ash, Beech, and other White-wooded Trees 302 XLVI. On Soft-wooded Forest Trees 313

PART VII.. How to Grow Good Orchards.

HOW TO GROW GOOD ORCHARDS.

XLVII. On the Apple and Pear as Orchard Fruits 319 XLVIII. On the Production and Choice of Fruit Trees 328 XLIX. On the Gathering and Storing of Fruit 338 L. On Cider-making and Management 345 LI. On the Uses and Economy of Cider and Perry 351

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THE SCIENCE AND PRACTICE

ROOT CULTIVATION.

CHAPTER I.. On the Origin of Root Crops.

ON THE ORIGIN OF ROOT CROPS.

Few people who have studied the matter attentively but have arrived at the conclusion that those plants which we cultivate for their roots were not naturally endowed with the root portion of their structure either of the size or form which would now be considered as essential for a perfect crop plant. Thus the parsnip, carrot, turnip, beet, &c., as we find them in nature, have nowhere the large, fleshy, smooth appearance which belongs to their cultivated forms; and hence all the varieties of these that we meet with in cultivation must be considered as derivatives from original wild forms, obtained by cultivative processes; that is, collecting their seed, planting it in a prepared bed, stimulating the growth of the plants with manures, thinning, regulating, weeding, and such other acts as constitute farming or gardening, as the case may be.

Hence, then, it is concluded that such plants as are grown for their roots have a peculiar aptitude for laying on tissue, and thus increasing the bulk of their “descending axis,” that is, that portion of their structure which grows downwards—root. Besides this, they are remarkable for their capability of producing varieties—a fact which, united with a constancy in the maintenance of an induced form, renders it exceedingly easy to bring out new sorts which will maintain their characteristics under great diversities of climate, soil, and treatment.

The facility with which different sorts of roots may be procured can readily be understood from the many varieties, not only of turnip—which may perhaps be considered as an original species—but also of swede, which is a hybrid of the turnip and rape plant. Of the former we have more than thirty sorts grown by the farmer, and as many peculiar to the garden; whilst there are probably more than twenty well-recognized sorts of swedes. Of beets, with mangel-wurzel, we have almost as great a variety; so also of carrots. Of parsnips we have fewer varieties, to which may now be added the new form called the Student parsnip, the growth of which is so interesting that we shall here give a short history of its production, as an illustration of the origin of root crops.

In 1847 we collected some wild parsnip seed from the top of the Cotteswolds, where this is among the most frequent of weeds. This seed, after having been kept carefully during the winter, was sown in a prepared bed, in the spring of 1848, in drills about eighteen inches apart. As the plants grew they were duly thinned out, leaving for the crop, as far as it could be done, the specimens that had leaves with the broadest divisions, lightest colour, and fewest hairs. As cultivated parsnips offer a curious contrast with the wild specimens in these respects, we place the following notes, side by side, on the root-leaves of plants of the same period of growth.

1st. WILD PARSNIP. | 2nd. STUDENT PARSNIP. Ft. in. | Ft. in. Whole length from the | Whole length from the base of the petiole to | base of the petiole to the apex of the leaf 0 8 | the tip of the leaf 2 0 Breadth of leaflets 0 0¾ | Breadth of leaflets 3 0¼ Length of ditto 0 1 | Length of leaflets 0 6½ Petiole and leaflets, | Petiole and leaflets hairy. Colour, dark | without hair. Colour, green. | light green.

We have before remarked that neither in size nor form are the wild roots at all comparable with the cultivated ones. Our figures 1 and 2 were taken from fine roots of the wild parsnip of the first year’s growth; that is to say, just at the same time as a crop parsnip would be at its best. They were purposely taken from specimens obtained from the same district as the seed with which our experiments were commenced.

Our first crop of roots from the wild seed presented great diversities in shape, being for the most part even more forked than the originals, but still with a general tendency to fleshiness. Of these the best shaped were reserved for seeding; and having been kept the greater part of the winter in sand, some six of the best were planted in another plot for seed. The seed, then, of 1849 was sown in the spring of 1850, in a freshly-prepared bed, the plants being treated as before, the results showing a decided improvement, with tendencies in some examples in the following directions:—

1st. The round-topped long-root, having a resemblance to the Guernsey parsnip. (Panais long of the French.)

2nd. The hollow-crowned long-root. “Hollow-headed” of the gardener. (Panais Lisbonais type.)

3rd. The short, thick turnip-shaped root. “Turnip-rooted” of the gardener. (Panais rond form.)

These three forms were all of them much mis-shapen, with forked roots, that is, fingers and toes; but still each of them offered opportunities of procuring three original varieties from this new source.

As an example of progress, we offer the following engraving of a specimen of our Round-topped parsnip of 1852. Fig. 3.

This it will be seen has strong, fleshy forks, and a tendency to form divided tap-roots; otherwise the shape is greatly improved, and the skin is tolerably smooth.

At this time our stock was for the most part fleshy and soft on boiling; the flavour, too, though much stronger than that of the usual esculent parsnip, was rather agreeable than otherwise.

This matter of flavour is a subject of interest, as most lovers of the parsnip, as a garden esculent, had got to complain of this root becoming more and more tasteless. That this was so our own experience most fully confirms; we have now, however, mended this root very materially in this respect.

Our experiments were only carried on with examples of the Hollow-crowned form, which following out from year to year, we at length obtained so perfect in form, clean in outline, delicate in skin, and unexceptionable in flavour, that we were induced to cause its seed to be distributed through the medium of the trade.

In 1881 we sowed a parcel of seed in our own garden obtained from the Messrs. Sutton, after having received from them the following notes upon the growth of the roots in their grounds:—

We are happy to tell you that in lifting some of each of all the varieties of parsnips in our trial-ground, your “Student” was decidedly the best shape, varying in length, but always clean and straight.

The engraving (Fig. 4) is taken from our garden stock of 1861, as being a common shape of this new variety. It is not quite so long and slender as the usual Long-horned parsnip, but its clean unbranched outline and solidity of structure recommend it as a good variety, whilst its flavour has been highly extolled by the lover of this, to some, favorite root. In size it is scarcely large enough for a field crop, but though not at present recommenced for the farm, its history may well serve to explain the origin of crop plants, as derived from the cultivation and improvement of wild species.

It may here be noted that the Student parsnip took the first prize for this root at the International Show at the Horticultural Society’s Gardens in 1862.

CHAPTER II.. On the Origin of Sorts of Roots.

ON THE ORIGIN OF SORTS OF ROOTS.

As crop plants are derived from wild ones, as the effect of cultivation, it follows as a matter of course that these will be varied, both in form and constitution, according to the circumstances under which they have been produced. Thus we may expect that any attempts to ennoble a wild root in different countries would not, even if successful, be sure to bring about the same results. Much depends even upon the individual root with which our trial may be started, and more upon the judgment employed in selecting the stock from which the experiments are to be continued.

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