Chapter X. Colonization in America: Asiatic Nations; Culture and

LITERATURE (1517-1648).

COLONIZATION IN AMERICA.

The European nations kept up their religious and political rivalship in exploring and colonizing the New World.

FRENCH EXPLORERS.--The French and English sent their fishermen to the coasts of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. French fishermen from Breton gave its name to Cape Breton. Francis I. sent out Verrazano, an Italian sailor, who is thought to have cruised along the coast of North America from Cape Fear northward (1524). Later, Jacques Cartier explored the St. Lawrence as far as the site of Montreal (1535); other expeditions followed, and thus was founded the claim of the French to that region.

SPANISH EXPLORERS.--The Spaniards brought negroes from the coast of Africa to the West Indies, to take the place of the Indians; and thus the slave-trade and negro slavery were established. They gave the name of Florida to a vast region stretching from the Atlantic to Mexico, and from the Gulf of Mexico to an undefined limit in the North. From Tampa Bay, in what we now call Florida, they sent into this unexplored region an expedition under Narvaez (1528); and afterwards, on the same track, another party led by Hernando de Soto (1539), which made its way to the Mississippi near the present site of Vicksburg. Tempted by tales of rich cities, Coronado led an army to the conquest of the pueblos of the south-west. He penetrated as far as the boundary of the present Nebraska.

CONTEST IN FLORIDA.--The great Huguenot leader, Coligny, made three attempts to found Huguenot settlements in America. He wanted to provide for them an asylum, and to extend the power of France. One company went to Brazil, and failed; a second perished at Port Royal in Florida; a third (1564) built Fort Caroline on the shores of the St. John. This last company was mercilessly slaughtered by Menendez, the leader of a Spanish expedition which founded St. Augustine (1565), the oldest town in the United States. The act was avenged by the massacre of the Spanish settlers at Fort Caroline, by Dominique de Gourgues and the French company that came over with him.

ENGLISH VOYAGES.--The English, full of zeal for maritime discovery, tried to find a north-west passage to Asia. This was attempted by Martin Frobisher, a sea-captain, from whom Frobisher's Strait takes its name. After him followed John Davis, who gave his name also to a strait. As the English grew stronger and bolder on the water, they ceased to avoid a contest with Spain. In 1577 Sir Francis Drake set out from the harbor of Plymouth on his voyage around the globe. The defeat of the Spanish Armada occurred in 1588; and after that the English felt themselves to be stronger than their old adversary.

GILBERT AND RALEIGH.--Sir Humphrey Gilbert, in 1583, took possession of Newfoundland in the name of the queen of England. Walter Raleigh, his half-brother, on his voyage in 1584, visited Roanoke Island, and named the whole country between the French and the Spanish possessions, Virginia, in honor of "the Virgin Queen," Elizabeth. A colony which he sent out to Roanoke (1585) failed, and a second settlement had no better result. Bartholomew Gosnold landed on Cape Cod, and cruised along the neighboring coast (1602).

THE FRENCH IN CANADA.--In 1603 Champlain, a French gentleman, sailed to Canada, whither the fur-trade enticed explorers. A few years later he founded Quebec (1608), and explored the country as far as Lake Huron. The Jesuit missionaries commenced their efforts to convert the Indian tribes, in which they evinced an almost unparalleled fortitude and perseverance. The Huron and Algonquin Indians helped Champlain gain a victory over the hostile and warlike Iroquois, who afterwards hated the French. The French occupants of the country of the St. Lawrence devoted themselves too exclusively to trading, and too little to the tilling of the ground and to the forming of a community.

THE DUTCH SETTLEMENTS.--The Dutch were as eager as the other maritime powers to find a passage to India. In 1609 an English captain in their service, Henry Hudson, balked in this endeavor, sailed up the river now called by his name. The next year, being in the service of an English company, he discovered Hudson's Bay. Amsterdam traders established themselves on the island of Manhattan (an Indian name); which led to the formation of the New Netherlands Company, by whom a fort (Orange) was built at the place afterwards called Albany (1615). The West India Company followed (1621), with authority over New Netherlands, as the country was called. The powerful land-owners were styled patroons. Their territory reached to Delaware Bay; and they had a trading-post on the Connecticut, on the site of the present city of Hartford.

In 1637 the Swedes made a settlement at the mouth of the Delaware River, but in 1655 they were subdued by the Dutch.

SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA.--The Virginia Company, divided into two branches,--the London Company, having control in the South, and the Plymouth Company, having control in the North,--received its patent of privileges from James I. (1606). A settlement by the Plymouth Company on the Kennebec River (1607)--the Popham Colony--was given up. In 1607 Jamestown in Virginia, as the name Virginia is now applied, was settled. A majority of the first colonists were gentlemen not wonted to labor. The military leader was Capt. John Smith, whose life, according to his own account, was spared by Powhatan, an Indian chief. Powhatan's daughter Pocahontas married Rolfe, an Englishman. The Jamestown colony seemed likely to become extinct, when, in 1610, Lord Delaware arrived with fresh supplies and colonists. He was the first of a series of governors who ruled with almost unlimited authority. But the colony grew to be more independent, and in sympathy with the popular party in England. In 1619 the House of Burgesses first met, which brought in government by the people. At this time negroes began to be imported from Africa, and sold as slaves.

THE PILGRIM SETTLEMENT.--The first permanent settlement in New England was made at Plymouth in 1620, by a company of English Christians, who landed from the "Mayflower." They were Puritans of that class called "Independents," who had separated from the English Church, and did not believe in any national church organization. The emigrants left Leyden, in Holland, where they had lived for some time in exile, and where the remainder of their congregation remained under the guidance of a learned and able pastor, John Robinson. In the harbor of Provincetown, they agreed to a compact of government. Their civil polity was republican; their church polity was Congregational. They endured with heroic and pious fortitude the severities of the first winter, when half of their number died. Their military leader was Capt. Miles Standish. In their dealings with the Indians, they were equally just and brave.

SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS.--Somewhat different in its origin and character from the "Pilgrim" settlement at Plymouth, was the other Puritan settlement of Massachusetts. The emigrants to Massachusetts were not separatists from the Church of England, but more conservative Puritans who desired, however, many ecclesiastical changes which they could not obtain at home. Both classes of settlers, transferred to New England, found no difficulty in agreeing in religious matters; for when left free, they desired about the same things. But at Plymouth there was more toleration for religious dissent than in the later colony. In 1629 certain London merchants formed a corporation called "the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England," and received a charter directly from Charles I. They sent out John Endicott to be governor of a settlement already formed at Salem. Charles had dissolved Parliament, and was beginning the experiment of absolutism. The new company was strengthened by the accession of a large number of Puritan gentlemen who were anxious to emigrate. They resolved to transfer the company and its government to the shores of America. John Winthrop was chosen governor, and in 1630 landed at Charlestown with a large body of settlers. Winthrop and his associates soon removed to the peninsula of Boston. The new colony was well provided with artisans. Soon ships began to be built. In 1636 a college, named in 1639, in honor of a benefactor, Harvard, was founded at Cambridge. At first all the voters met together to choose their rulers and frame their laws. As the towns increased in number, a General Court, or legislative assembly, was established by the colony, in which each town was represented. Each town had its church, and only church-members voted. The General Court superintended the affairs of both town and church. The political troubles in England stimulated emigration. Within ten years, about twenty thousand Englishmen, mainly Puritans, crossed the Atlantic, and took up their abode in New England. In the ecclesiastical system each church was self-governing, except as the General Court was over all. There were no bishops, and the liturgy was dispensed with in worship.

SETTLEMENT OF CONNECTICUT.--After the Dutch had built a trading-post on the site of Hartford, people from Plymouth formed a settlement at Windsor, on the Connecticut, six miles above. From Boston and its neighborhood, there was a migration which settled Hartford. In 1637 the three towns of Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hartford became the distinct colony of Connecticut. A colony led by the younger John Winthrop, under a patent given to Lord Say and Sele and Lord Brook, drove away the Dutch from the mouth of the Connecticut, and settled Saybrook (1635). This colony was afterwards united with the Connecticut colony. A third colony was established at New Haven (1638), which had an independent existence until 1662.

SETTLEMENT OF RHODE ISLAND, OF NEW HAMPSHIRE, AND OF MAINE.--Roger Williams, a minister who was not allowed to live in Massachusetts, on account of his differences with the magistrates, was the founder of Rhode Island (1636). He held that the State should leave matters of religious opinion and worship to the conscience of the individual, and confine government to secular concerns. This was not the view of the Puritans generally; and the incoming of dissenters from their religious and political system made them afraid that the colony would be broken up, or fall into disorder. Williams, in most of his qualities a noble man, obtained a patent for his government, which was framed in accordance with his liberal ideas. On lands granted by the Plymouth Company to Sir Ferdinando Gorges, settlements were made in New Hampshire and in Maine (1623). A line between the two was drawn in 1631; Gorges taking the territory on the east of the Piscataqua River, and Capt. John Mason taking the remainder.

VIRGINIA.--After 1624 the king appointed the governor in Virginia, which, however, had its own assembly. The colony grew rapidly, its chief export being tobacco. The people lived on their estates or plantations, employing indented servants and negro slaves.

MARYLAND.--Maryland was founded by George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, a Roman Catholic, to whom Charles I. granted a charter (1632). The first settlement was made by Calvert's sons, after his death. They planted a colony near the mouth of the Potomac. The Calverts sent out both Puritans and Roman Catholics, and secured the safety of the adherents of their own faith by the grant of toleration to the Protestants. Under Cromwell, a Puritan governor was appointed by Lord Baltimore (1649). There were boundary disputes with Virginia; and Clayborne, a Puritan and a Virginian, at one time got control of the government, which the Calverts regained under Charles II. (1660).

NEW ENGLAND: NEW YORK.--During the war between king and Parliament in England, the Puritan colonies were in sympathy with the popular party, but were cautious in their avowals. They took great pains to prevent the king, and later the Parliament under the Commonwealth, from taking away their self-government. The English navigation acts, which forbade them to use foreign ships for their trade and forced them to send nearly all their products to English ports, were a grievance to them. The rivalries of the English and the Dutch gave the colonists a chance to expel the Dutch from Connecticut. Charles II. at length conquered New Netherland, and ceded this territory to his brother, the Duke of York, afterwards James II. New Amsterdam became New York, and Fort Orange became Albany. In 1674 the country was formally ceded to England by Holland.

THE INDIANS.--When America was discovered, Mexico, Central America, and Peru were empires, to a considerable degree civilized. Relics taken from the mounds of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys indicate, also, that races somewhat advanced in culture had once dwelt in those regions. The most of both continents was inhabited by very numerous tribes of Indians, who were savages, with the ordinary virtues and vices of savage life. They were brave and patient, but indolent, treacherous, and implacable. There was an immense variety of dialects among them, yet there are traces of a common original unity of language. The tribes had no fixed boundaries, but roamed over extensive hunting-grounds. The Iroquois, or the Six Nations, occupied central New York from the Hudson to the Genesee. The Algonquins were spread over nearly all the rest of the country on the east of the Mississippi River, and north of North Carolina. The Creeks, Choctaws, and Chickasaws were in the South.

THE WHITES AND THE RED MEN.--It was fortunate for the settlers of New England, that, before their arrival, the Indians had been much reduced in numbers by pestilence. Sometimes they were treated wisely and humanely, and efforts were made by noble men like John Eliot (1604-1690), who has been called "the Apostle to the Indians," to teach and civilize them. But this spirit was not always shown by the whites, and wrongs done by an individual are avenged by savages upon his race. The first important conflict between the English and the Indians was the Pequot War (1636), when the English, helped by the Narragansetts, who were under the influence of Roger Williams, crushed the Pequots, who were a dangerous tribe. A league between the New-England colonies, for mutual counsel and aid, followed (1643). Into this league, Massachusetts would not allow Rhode Island, whose constitution was disliked, to be admitted. There were to be two commissioners to represent each colony in common meetings.

SCIENCE, PHILOSOPHY, LITERATURE.

ASTRONOMY.--In this period wonderful progress was made in astronomy. Copernicus, a German or Polish priest (1473-1543), detected the error of the Ptolemaic system, which made not the sun, but the earth, the center of the solar system. Thus a revolution was made in that science. Tycho Brahe, a Danish astronomer (1546-1601), was a most accurate and indefatigable observer, although he did not adopt the Copernican theory. His pupil Kepler (1571-1630) discovered those great principles respecting the orbits and motions of the planets, which are called the "Laws of Kepler." Galileo (1564-1642), the Italian scientist, in addition to important discoveries in mechanics, with the telescopes, which his ingenuity had constructed, discerned the moons of Jupiter, and made other striking discoveries in the heavens. In promulgating the Copernican doctrine, he incurred the displeasure of ecclesiastics, and was driven by the Inquisition to renounce his opinion. It was reserved for Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) to discover the law of gravitation.

JURISPRUDENCE.--In jurisprudence, the Roman law was more and more studied in universities. In political science, Bodin, a learned Frenchman (1530-1596), wrote a work on the State, advocating a strong monarchy. In the Netherlands, Hugo Grotius (1583-1645), a great jurist and scholar, was one of the principal founders of the science of International Law. An eminent expounder of natural and international law in Germany was Pufendorf (1632-1694).

HISTORICAL WRITINGS.--In history, Sleidan, a German (1506-1556), and later a learned statesman, Seckendorf (1626-1692), wrote histories of the Reformation. De Thou, a Frenchman (1553-1617), wrote a valuable history of his own times. Grotius described the war for independence in the Netherlands. Church history, on the Protestant side, was written by a company of authors called the Magdeburg Centuriators; and on the Catholic side, in the Annals of Baronius (who died in 1607). In the Tower of London, Sir Walter Raleigh employed himself in writing a History of the World, remarkable, if not for its researches, for passages of noble eloquence. In Italy, historians followed in the path opened by Machiavelli, through his Discourses on Livy and his Florentine History. Davila (1576-1631) composed a narrative of the Civil Wars in France, and the Cardinal Bentivoglio wrote the history of the Civil War in the Netherlands. Sarpi, a keen Venetian, of much independence of thought, related the history of the Council of Trent, which was followed by a history of the same Council by the more orthodox Pallavicini. In Spain, there was at least one historian of superior value, Mariana, who composed a history of his own country.

MEDICINE.--Medicine felt the benefit of the revival of learning. Hippocrates and Galen were studied, and were translated into Latin. Paracelsus, a German physician (1493-1541), besides broaching various theories more or less visionary, advanced the science on the chemical side, introducing certain mineral remedies. Vesalius, a native of Brussels (1514-1564), who became chief physician of Charles V. and Philip II., dissected the human body, and produced the first comprehensive and systematic view of anatomy. In the sixteenth century clinical instruction was introduced into hospitals. Harvey, an English physician (1578-1657), discovered the circulation of the blood. In the seventeenth century activity in medical study was shown by the rise of various discordant systems.

PHILOSOPHY.--In philosophy, Aristotle continued to be the master in the most conservative schools, where the old ways of thinking were cherished. His ethical doctrines were especially attacked by Luther. Giordano Bruno, an Italian, not without genius, promulgated a theory of pantheism, which identified the Deity with the world. He wandered from land to land, was a vehement assailant of received religious views, and was burned at the stake at Rome (1600). In some gifted minds, the conflict of doctrinal systems, and the influence of the Renaissance, engendered skepticism. Montaigne (1533-1592), the genial essayist on men and manners, the Plutarch of France, is an example of this class. The opposition to Aristotle and to the schoolmen found a great leader in the English philosopher, Francis Bacon (1561-1626). The influence of Lord Bacon was more in stimulating to the use of the inductive method, the method of observation, than in any special value belonging to the rules laid down for it. He pointed out the path of fruitful investigation. Hobbes (1588-1679), an English writer, propounded, in his Leviathan (1651) and in other writings, his theory of the absolute authority of the king, and the related doctrine that right is founded on the necessity of "a common power," if the desires are to be gratified, and if endless destructive contention is to be avoided. From the epoch of Bacon, the natural and physical sciences acquire a new importance. In metaphysical science, the modern epoch dates from Descartes (1596-1650), born in France, who insisted that philosophy must assume nothing, but must start with the proposition, "I think, therefore I am." Before, philosophy had been "the handmaid of theology." It had taken for granted a body of beliefs respecting God, man, and the world. Descartes was a theist. Spinoza (1632-1677), of Jewish extraction, born in Holland, is the founder of modern pantheism. He taught that there is but one substance; that God and the world--the totality of things--are the manifestation of one impersonal being.

LITERATURE IN ITALY.--In Italy, among many authors in different departments of poetry, Tasso (1544-1595), the author of the epic Jerusalem Delivered, is the most eminent. In it, the classic and the romantic styles are combined; the spirit of the Middle Ages blends with the unity and harmony of Homer and Virgil. In the seventeenth century, under the hard Spanish rule, the literary spirit in Italy was chilled.

LITERATURE IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.--In Spain, it was poetry and the drama that chiefly flourished. Other sorts of literary activity were stifled with the extinction of liberty. Lope de Vega (1562-1635), one of the most facile and marvelous of all poets, the author of twenty-two hundred dramas,--was the precursor of a school. After him came Calderon (1600-1681), who carried the Spanish drama to its perfection. Early in the seventeenth century Cervantes published the classic tale of Don Quixote, "to render abhorred of men the false and absurd stories contained in books of chivalry," an end which he accomplished. Mariana's (1536-1623) vivid and interesting History of Spain was continued in a less attractive style by Sandoval. Herrera (1549-1625) composed a General History of the Indies. Other works relating to the New World and the Spanish conquests were written. In the production of proverbs, the Spanish mind is without a rival. Not the least of the bad effects of the despotic system of Philip II. was the decay of literature.

The most celebrated writer of Portugal is the poet Camoens (1524-1579), who, in his epic the Lusiad, has treated of the glorious events in the history of his country, giving special prominence to the discovery by Vasco da Gama of the passage to India.

LITERATURE IN FRANCE.--In France, with the exception of Montaigne, it was Rabelais (1495-1553), a physician, philosopher, and humorist, who, notwithstanding his profanity and obscenity, was the most popular author of his day, and who well represents the tone of the Renaissance in that country. Ronsard (1524-1585), an imitator of the Latins and Greeks, was the favorite poet of Mary, Queen of Scots. In the first half of the seventeenth century the light literature of the French is ruled by fashion, and is void of serious feeling. In this time the literary societies of France take their rise. Madame de Rambouillet (1588-1665), a lady of Italian birth, set the example in establishing such reunions. She made her hotel a resort for writers and politicians. Being an invalid, she kept her bed, which was placed in an alcove of the salon where she received her visitors.

LITERATURE IN ENGLAND.--In England, in the age of Elizabeth, there is a galaxy of great authors in prose and verse. The events and debates of the Reformation, the voyages and geographical discoveries of the period, gave a powerful quickening to thought and imagination. The Renaissance culture, which made familiar the stories of Greek and Roman mythology, and the romantic tales and poetry of Italy and Spain, was potent in its effect. Some of the numerous theological writers, as Bishop Hall (1574-1656), Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667), and Richard Hooker (1553-1600), have gained a high place in general literature. Bacon, apart from his philosophical writings, towers above almost all his contemporaries in the field of letters. The chivalrous Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586) wrote the pastoral romance of Arcadia. Burton (1576-1640), the author of The Anatomy of Melancholy, and Sir Thomas Brown, who published (1642) the Religio Medici (the religion of a physician) and, at a later date, the Urn Burial, are quaint and original authors. The merit of Shakspeare (1564-1616) is so exalted and unique that he almost eclipses even the greatest names. The English drama did not heed what are called the classic unities of time and place, which limit the action of a play to a brief duration and a contracted area. Other celebrated dramatic writers are Beaumont (1586-1615) and Fletcher (1579-1625), who wrote many plays jointly; Ben Jonson (1574-1637), and Massinger (1584-1640). The imaginative poetry which is not dramatic, in this period, begins with Spenser (1553-1599), whose Faërie Queene is a poem of chivalry; and it ends with Milton (1608-1674), the Puritan poet, imbued with the culture of the Renaissance, whose majesty and beauty place him almost on a level, at least in the esteem of readers of the English race, with Dante. Among the religious poets is George Herbert (1593-1635). One of the most famous of the lyric authors was the last of them, Cowley (1618-1667).

LITERATURE IN GERMANY.--In Germany, the great literary product of this period was Luther's translation of the Bible. The immediate effect of the controversy in religion was not favorable to the cause of letters. Attention was engrossed by theological inquiries and discussion. But in most of the countries, in the department of theology, preachers and writers of much ability and learning appeared on both sides of the controversy. Biblical study and historical researches were of necessity fostered by the exigencies of religious debate.

ASIATIC NATIONS.

I. CHINA.

THE JESUIT MISSIONS.--The Ming dynasty continued in power in China until 1644. About the middle of the sixteenth century the Portuguese came to the island of Macao, and commercial relations began between China and Europe. They brought opium into China, which had previously been imported overland from India. In 1583 Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit missionary, began his labors in China. He and his associates had great success. His knowledge of the book language was most remarkable. The concessions of the Jesuit fathers to the Chinese in matters of ritual excited much opposition in the Church. But for this dissension among the different Catholic orders, the Roman Catholic faith, which had gained very numerous converts, would have spread far more widely.

THE MANCHU CONQUEST.--There were notable literary achievements in this period, one of which was an encyclopedia in more than twenty-two thousand books. Four copies were made: only one, a damaged copy, now remains. The great political event of the time was the seizure of the throne by the Manchu Tartars (1644), who came in as auxiliaries against a rebellion, but have worn the crown until now. The shaved head and the long cue are customs introduced by the Tartar conquerors. Certain privileges, and certain habits to which the natives clung, as the mode of dress for women, and the compression of their feet, were retained by express stipulation.

II. JAPAN.

FEUDAL SYSTEM.--In 1603 Iyéyasu, an eminent general, founded the Tokugawa dynasty, which continued until the resignation of the last Shôgun (or Tycoon) in 1867. The rulers of that line held their court at Yedo, which grew into a flourishing city. The long period of anarchy and bloodshed that had preceded, was brought to an end. Iyéyasu laid the foundation of a feudal system which his grandson Iyémitsu (1623-1650) completed. Japan was divided into fiefs, each under a daimiô for its chief, who enjoyed a large degree of independence. The people consisted of four classes: (1) the military families, who had the right to wear two swords, the clansmen of the great nobles; (2) the farming class; (3) the artisans; (4) the tradesmen.

CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN.--Christianity was preached in Japan by Xavier, a successful Jesuit missionary, in 1583. Other Jesuit preachers followed. A multitude of converts were made. But on account of immoralities of Europeans, and the dread of foreign political domination, the government engaged in a series of severe persecutions. In 1614 an edict proscribed Christianity. A portion of the peasants who were converts were so oppressed, that they revolted (1637). The result was an act of terrible cruelty,--the massacre of all Christians; so that none remained openly to profess the Christian faith.

III. INDIA.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE.--In the latter half of the fourteenth and in the fifteenth centuries, the most of India was ruled by distinct Mohammedan dynasties. The dominion of the Afghan dynasty at Delhi was thus greatly reduced. In 1525 the Mughal (Mogul) Empire was founded by Babar, a descendant of Tamerlane. Babar invaded India, and defeated the Sultan of Delhi in the battle of Paniput. The new empire was not permanently established until his grandson Akbar (1556-1605), in a series of conquests, spread his dominion over all India north of the Vindhyar mountains. Not until the reign of Aurungzeb (1658-1707), was the Deccan subdued. After 1600 the Portuguese no longer had the monopoly of the foreign trade: the Dutch and English became their rivals.

LITERATURE.--See lists of works on general history, p. 16; on modern history, p. 395; on the history of particular countries, p. 359.

General Works on the Period. De Thou's History of his own Times; ROBERTSON'S History of Charles V. (Prescott's ed.); Von Raumer's Gesch. Europas seit d. Ende d, 15 tu Jahrk, (8 vols).; Hallam's Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries; RANKE'S series of works on this period,--the History of the Popes, and the Histories of Germany, France, and England; Histories of the Reformation by D'Aubigné, Döllinger (Roman Catholic), Spalding (Roman Catholic), Fisher, HAUSSER, Hardwick, Stebbing; Laurent, La Reforme; Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Genérale (iv. and v.); Seebohm's Era of Protestant Revolution; Works of Janssen, Pastor, Creighton.

On the German and Swiss Reformation: Waddington's History, etc.; Hagenhach, Vorlesungen, etc.; Lives of Luther, by Meurer, Michelet, Beard, KÖSTLIN; Lives of Zwingh, by CHRISTOFFEL, MORIKOFER; Lives of Calvin, by HENRY, Dyer, Kampschulte (Roman Catholic).

Reformation in France. Works by Soldan, Von Polenz, Smiles, Browning; BAIRD'S works on Huguenots; Perkins, France under Richelieu and Mazarin (2 vols.); Hanotaux, Richelieu (2 vols.).

The Revolt of the Netherlands. Blok's History of the Netherlands (3 vols.), etc.; MOTLEY'S Rise of the Dutch Republic, and History of the United Netherlands; PRESCOTT'S History of Philip II.; TH. JUSTE, Hist, de la Rèvol. des Pays-Bas, etc. (2 vols).

The Reformation in England. The Histories of Macaulay. Lingard, Froude, Burnet's History of the Reformation in England. S. R. Gardiner's History of England (1603 to 1656); Clarendon's History of the Great Rebellion; a series of works on this period by GUIZOT; Neal's History of the Puritans; Gairdner, History of the English Church from Henry VIII. to Mary; selections of documents by Prothero and by Gardiner; Lives of Cromwell, by CARLYLE, by Forster, Gardiner, Harrison, Firth; Strype's Lives of the Leading Reformers--Cranmer, etc.

On the Reformation in Scotland. BURTON'S History of Scotland; Robertson's History of Scotland; McCrie's Life of John Knox; W. M. TAYLOR, Life of John Knox.

On the Thirty Years' War. GINDELY'S History, etc.; Gardiner, The Thirty Years' War; Life of Gustavus Adolphus.

For more extended lists, see Adams's Manual, etc.; and Fisher's The Reformation (Appendix). For list of works on colonization in America, see the list at the end of Period III.

PERIOD III. FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. (1648-1789)

INTRODUCTION.

CHARACTER OF THE PERIOD.--One feature of this period is the efforts made by the nations to improve their condition, especially to increase the thrift and to raise the standing of the middle class. An illustration is what is called the "mercantile system" in France. Along with this change, there is progress in the direction of greater breadth in education and culture. In both of these movements, rulers and peoples cooperate. Monarchical power, upheld by standing armies, reaches its climax. The result is internal order, coupled with tyranny. Great wars were carried on, mostly contests for succession to thrones. The outcome was an equilibrium in the European state system, dependent on the relations of five great powers.

FIRST SECTION OF THE PERIOD.--In the first half of the period, the East and the West of Europe are slightly connected. In the West, France gains the preponderance over Austria, until, by the Spanish war of succession, England restores the balance. In the East, Sweden is in the van, until, in the great Northern war (1700-1721), Russia becomes predominant.

SECOND SECTION OF THE PERIOD.--In the second half of the period, the East and the West of Europe are brought together in one state system, in particular by the rise of the power of Prussia.

CHIEF EVENTS.--The fall of Sweden and the rise of Russia and Prussia are political events of capital importance. The maritime supremacy of England, with the loss by England of the American colonies, is another leading fact. In the closing part of the period appear the intellectual and political signs of the great Revolution which broke out in France near the end of the eighteenth century.