Part 34

The Plagiostomi comprise the Sharks (fig. 45) and Dog-fishes, a most voracious tribe; the White Shark often attains the length of twenty feet. They are terribly famous for their dreadful powers of destruction, swallowing all that comes before them; they are able to bite in two, with one snap of their formidable jaws, the body of any one unfortunate enough to fall in their way; their mouths are armed with several rows of short spear-shaped teeth; the mouth is placed a considerable distance under the head, so that when biting they turn on one side or quite over; they have no gills, but the water passes through five oblong openings on each side. Sailors hold this terrible inhabitant of the deep in great detestation, as well they may, for there are few who have spent many years at sea but can tell of a friend or messmate who has been mutilated or devoured by the Sharks. When sailors catch one, it is hauled on deck and killed with great gusto; the stomach is opened and its contents examined, and it generally contains some terrible mementoes in the form of buttons, buckles, &c., the only relics of its victims.

3. CYCLOSTOMI (Round-mouthed).

The Lamprey or Lampern (fig. 46) inhabits both rivers and lakes, and some species, the sea; it has a round mouth, by which it affixes itself to rocks, &c., and also to other fish, it is furnished with teeth on the outer edge, it has no scales, but is covered with a glutinous skin; in form it much resembles an Eel, and is from twelve to eighteen inches long. The Lamprey was once very plentiful in the Thames, and considered a dainty.

REPTILES.

These constitute the second class of the Vertebrate animals. They are divided into four orders.

1. AMPHIBIA (double-lived).

By some naturalists a separate class is made out of the Amphibia, including the Frog kind, Toads, and Newts (fig. 47), which they call "Batrachia," and which takes a place between Reptiles and Fishes, as the young of this class have a totally different form from the adult animal, and much resemble a fish, breathing by gills and having no legs, but as they become mature the gills are replaced by lungs, and the legs make their appearance.

The Amphibia have soft skins, which appear to serve as lungs or gills when they are under the water, extracting the air from it, and enabling them to remain a long time there without coming up to breathe; they are partly aquatic, and feed upon insects and other small creatures, which they capture by darting out the tongue, which is covered with a glutinous secretion, and drawing it in again instantly with the insect adhering to it, which they swallow whole. The Frogs are furnished with webbed feet and swim well; they progress on land by leaps, their powerful hind legs carrying them to a great distance. The young of the Amphibia are brought forth as eggs, which float on the water, and when they first come to life form the curious little creatures called Tadpoles, having long tails and no feet, and, as before stated, more resembling Fish than Reptiles. The Toads are for the most part nocturnal in their habits, living in the daytime in gardens and holes; they feed upon insects, as do Frogs, and lay their eggs in the water. The stories of Toads being found alive in rock and the heart of trees, arise from the following circumstances: Toads when small will often creep into holes in rocks and hollows in trees, and in these situations they find abundance of food; being slothful in their habits, and capable of existing upon but little food, and abstaining from it a long time, they are apt to remain in their snug quarters and content themselves with what insects may come to them. In this way they grow too large to get out of the hole, and live for a great time in it; when chance discovers them, by the rock being broken open or the wood of the tree cleft, the opening into which they had crept is overlooked. The Water Newt (Triton cristatus) inhabits pools and ditches, and (like the others of this order) is first formed as a Tadpole; it is of a brown and bright yellow colour, with a crest down its back and tail, and has the most extraordinary powers of reproducing any part cut off or removed, such as a leg or the tail.

2. OPHIDIA (Snake-like order).

This includes the Serpents, Boas, and Pythons. These creatures are peculiar from their long and flexible form, and the absence of legs. They move by a sinuous winding action, and when about to seize their prey, make a sudden dart with great rapidity. They are covered with regular scales, and mottled with different colours; some, as the Adder and Rattle-snake, are very venomous, the poison is contained in small glands connected with the poison-fangs, which are two long pointed teeth, having a groove or small canal leading from the side of the tooth to the poison-bag, upon which, when they bite, they press, and inject the poison into the wound while the tooth is in the flesh. These poison-fangs lie flat down when the creature is not excited, but are drawn up by muscles, when they are about to spring on anything. It is a common mistake to think that Serpents have a "sting," arising from their having a thin, long forked tongue, which they protrude and retract with great rapidity, and which has been mistaken for a sting; the greater number of Snakes are not at all venomous. Serpents have no teeth fit for eating with, but they are used to hold their prey, while they swallow it, and they serve admirably for this purpose, as each tooth turns backwards. These creatures have mouths and throats capable of enormous distension (the lower jaw not being fixed to the upper one), so that they can swallow their food whole, which they always do; a Frog or Toad is often swallowed by the common Snake, which is quite disfigured by it when in its stomach. The Pythons and Boas (fig. 48) are the largest of this class, they kill their prey by coiling round it, and gradually tightening their folds till it is suffocated and almost crushed, when it is swallowed; these great creatures will grow to the length of 30 or 40 feet, and are capable of swallowing considerable quadrupeds, as Hares, Goats, Deer, &c.; after having their food, they lie torpid for several days. All Serpents lay eggs, and the Pythons coil themselves round upon their eggs to protect them; the Boa-constrictors are inhabitants of America, the Pythons of the Old World.

3. SAURIA (Lizards).

The Sauria include the Crocodiles, Alligators, Skinks, Geckos, Iguanas, and Lizards; they are carnivorous, the smaller ones feeding on insects, and the larger members on whatever they can catch. They have four legs, and are covered with hard rough scales running in ridges on their backs, they have large strong tails, and their jaws are furnished with sharp teeth. The Alligator is found in great numbers in the Mississippi, and is a most formidable creature, attacking any who may venture into the water. In winter they bury themselves in the mud and remain there in a torpid state, they are from 15 to 20 feet long. The Crocodile is a native of Africa and the West Indies, there are many found in the Nile, it is larger than the Alligator, reaching often to 30 feet. Dr Baird gives the following account of the Alligators and Crocodiles:--

"The Alligator (Alligator lucius, fig. 49), a native of North America and abundant in the Mississippi, is a formidable and ferocious creature, prodigiously strong, and sometimes reaching the length of 18 feet. It is provided with numerous sharp teeth, long tenacious claws, and a powerful tail, a single blow of which is capable of overturning a canoe. It chiefly preys by night, assembling in large numbers, besetting the mouth of some retired creek, into which they have previously driven the fish, and bellowing so loud that they may be heard at the distance of a mile. It is said to attack men and quadrupeds whilst bathing or crossing the rivers, and to be more fierce and voracious then the other species of this sub-family. In Winter it buries itself in the mud at the bottom of the swamps and marshes which it inhabits, and continues in a torpid state till Spring.

"The true Crocodiles are natives of Africa, the West Indies, and America; and the best known species is the Nilotic Crocodile (Crocodilus vulgaris, fig. 49). This animal is a native of the Senegal river, of the Niger, and other rivers of Africa, but more particularly of the Nile in Egypt, where it attains the length of about 30 feet. The Crocodile was held in great veneration by the ancient Egyptians, by whom it was known under the name of 'Champsa.' The Crocodiles are exclusively carnivorous, and are ferocious animals. Their numbers are, however, kept down by the enemies which surround them. For the adults, few animals could be their match, but the little Ichneumon or 'Mongooz' devours their eggs in great numbers while hatching in the sand; and birds of prey pounce upon their young on quitting their shell, and before they are able to reach the shore."

4. TESTUDINATA (having a shield).

The Testudinata include the Tortoise, and Turtle kind. They are remarkable for their horny covering (carapace) which forms a sort of shell, out of openings in which, their head, tail, and legs protrude; they have short feet, covered with scales, and no teeth, but the edges of the maxillary bones are sharp, like the edge of a knife, and they bite out pieces from vegetable substances with ease. Some of this class (the Turtles) are residents of the water, and grow to a great size, weighing fourteen or fifteen hundred pounds, and measuring seven or eight feet long. Others are much esteemed as food, especially the green Turtle. Dr. Baird, in his Cyclopædia of the Natural Sciences, under the article "Chelonia," gives a good description of these creatures, from which the following is extracted:--

"The Green Turtle (Chelonia viridis, or midas, fig. 50) is five or six feet long, and weighs from seven to eight hundred pounds. It is principally found in the Atlantic Ocean, and is often met with seven or eight hundred leagues from land. They are easily caught when asleep on the surface of the water, to which they come to breathe. In the West Indies, the Bahama Islands, and the Island of Ascension, the capture of Turtles gives employment to many people, and affords food for thousands.

"The Hawk's-bill Turtle (Caretha imbricata) is a smaller species, scarcely ever exceeding two hundred pounds' weight, and is a native of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The flesh is not good, but the shells, which are formed of a considerable number of scales overlapping each other at their extremities, in the manner of tiles on the roof of a building, are of great importance as an article of commerce, and are much superior to that of any other species. It is extensively used in the manufacture of combs, snuff-boxes, &c., also for inlaying, and other ornamental work.

"In the family of land Tortoises (fig. 51), the feet are club-shaped, and their habits are terrestrial. The shell is very solid, thick, ovate, and (in the adult state) covered with horny concentrically-grooved shields, marked with a permanent areola. They have a short thick tail, are very slow in their motion, and live upon vegetables and roots. Most of the species are natives of the warm regions of the globe, but those that live in colder regions burrow and sleep during the winter. They are quiet, inoffensive animals, extremely tenacious of life, and remarkable for longevity. Individuals are stated upon good authority to have lived upwards of two hundred years.

"The common Tortoise, or Taragua (Testudo Græca), is a native of the south of Europe, and almost all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean; it is found in the islands of the Archipelago, Corsica, Sardinia, and in Africa, but is thought to be more common in Greece than elsewhere. It is from six to eight inches long, and weighs about forty-eight ounces. This species is often brought to this country and kept in gardens. One was brought to the Archiepiscopal garden at Lambeth, in the time of Laud, in 1633, where it lived till 1753, owing its death then, more to neglect than the effects of age."

BIRDS.

The third class of the Vertebrata, comprises the "Birds," or those whose young are not born alive, but in the form of eggs; who have warm blood, and breathe by lungs, the air-cells of which communicate with the hollow shafts of the bones, (these are full of air instead of marrow), this gives them lightness, and serves as a reservoir of air while flying; they have two anterior extremities so modified as to form wings, and a heart with four cavities; most of them have the power of flying through the air, and some to a very great height, as the "Condor" (fig. 52), while in others the wings are rudimentary and only assist them in running, as in the Ostrich (fig. 52) Cassowary, Penguin, &c., while in the "Apteryx" (fig. 52) they are quite absent.

Birds are covered with a peculiar modification of hair known as feathers; these consist of a central shaft with closely-set diverging branches, some of which have others branching from them with a serrated surface, giving them that peculiar metallic brilliancy so well shown in the feathers of the Humming Bird. Birds are furnished with beaks of almost every form, to suit their method of feeding, &c., and likewise feet, sometimes furnished with sharp and powerful talons, at others, feet suitable to climb with, and again in some they are webbed between the toes, so as to enable them to swim with great rapidity.

Birds are divided into five orders, as follows:--

1. RAPTORES (Preying) Eagle, Owl, &c. 2. INSESSORES (Perching), divided into 4 tribes, viz:-- 1. Dentirostres (Tooth bill) Thrush, Butcher-bird. 2. Conirostres (Cone bill) Raven, Crow, Finch. 3. Scansores (Climbing) Parrot, Wood-pecker. 4. Fissirostres (Split bill) King Fisher, Goat-sucker. 3. RASORES (Scraping) Poultry, Pheasants, &c. 4. GRALLATORES (Wading) Heron, Crane, &c. 5. NATATORES (Swimming) Goose, Duck, &c.

1. The RAPTORES, as the Eagles and Falcons, are furnished with hooked beaks and strong sharp talons (fig. 53), they prey upon all small animals, as birds of less strength, rabbits, &c., and some of them upon fish, as the Osprey, others feed upon dead flesh and offal, as the Vultures, and are very useful creatures in hot countries, where they are generally respected, they hover about the towns, feeding upon almost everything capable of being swallowed; it is not certain whether these birds detect the presence of food by smell or sight (both of these senses are possessed by them in perfection), but it is certain that in the desert, when any animal dies, these birds soon make their appearance, although a few minutes before not one could be seen for miles around. The Owls are nocturnal, their plumage is downy, and their eyes placed so that both shall look forwards, the pupils close, similarly to a cat's eye, and their vision, like the cats (their companions among the Mammalia) is extremely sensitive, so that the expression "as blind as an Owl," has no more sense in it than "as blind as a Cat" would have; they feed upon rats, mice, insects, &c.

2. The INESSORES include some that live by catching insects in the air while they fly, as the Swallows (fig. 54); these are furnished with great powers of flight and rapidity of movement; others (the Scansores) which climb and hold by the branches of trees, feeding upon nuts and fruit, as the Parrot; others live upon insects, but seek them in the crevices of old trees and other similar places, as the Woodpeckers (fig. 54). Some live entirely upon fish (King-fishers), which they catch from the streams on the banks of which they live. This order includes all the singing birds, and by far the greater number of birds of passage; this propensity to migrate is one of the most wonderful of all the instincts of Birds, the Swallow leaves England in the Autumn to take up its abode for the Winter in Africa, or the Islands of the Archipelago, and returns again in the Spring, year after year, to the same nest; these journeys are accomplished at the rate of 40 or 50 miles an hour. Pigeons also have the wonderful faculty of returning home from almost any distance, appearing to know by instinct the right direction; as, after a turn or two, they take a straight course to their destination.

3. The RASORES include the common Fowl (fig. 55), Pheasant (fig. 55), Partridge, Turkey, &c.; they feed principally on grain, but occasionally on insects and worms, which they scrape up with their feet; they live chiefly upon the ground, on which they build their nests, but generally roost on trees. Most of this order supply excellent food, the Turkey is famous as a Christmas dish, and is often of a great size; this bird is very plentiful in Central and South America in a wild state, and often attains a large size, weighing 30 or 40 pounds; the natives have a simple and curious method of catching these birds, which are extremely shy, never allowing any one to approach near to them. A sort of cage is built of twigs, large enough to contain many, and having holes close to the ground all round, of a size just sufficient to admit a Turkey when its head is bent down; leading to each of these holes a train of corn is placed, but none within, the birds coming to pick the corn, follow up the line of corn with their heads down, till they are within the inclosure, when finding no more, they raise up their heads and cannot get out, for they have not the sense to stoop their heads, so as to allow of their exit.