Part 80

About 1650, steel was hardened by repeated quenchings and temperings when the steel had reached certain colors. Brass was made from copper and zinc alloyed together.

There were power-driven rolls for the coinage from 1657. Strips of silver were passed between engraved rolls. Then coins were punched out and their edges serrated.

In the 1650s, Huygens invented the pendulum clock, which increased the accuracy of time-keeping tenfold.

There was a thermometer which used liquid such as water or alcohol in a glass tube instead of air.

Dutchman Stevinus showed that the pressure at the bottom of a column of liquid is proportional to the height of the column, and not to its bulk, about 1634. He also studied oblique forces, and the balancing of such that could bring about "stable equilibrium".

At a time when mathematics was only a business of traders, merchants, seamen, carpenters, and surveyors, mathematician John Wallis, the son of a minister, studied sections of cones as curves of the second algebraic degree. He worked with negative and fractional exponents. Around 1655 he invented the infinite arithmetic and introduced the symbol for infinity. He determined that the area under any curve defined by the equation y = (x to the nth power), was x to the (n+1)th power divided by n+1. ,

Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician, physicist, and religious philosopher, constructed a calculator in 1644 to assist his father, who was involved in local administration, in tax computations. Around 1646, he proved his law that pressure applied to a confined liquid is transmitted undiminished through the liquid in all directions regardless of the area to which the pressure is applied. Around 1653, he laid the foundations for the theory of probabilities, including the creation of "Pascal's Triangle" of coefficients of (a=b) raised to the nth power. He and lawyer and mathematician Pierre Fermat invented the theory of probabilities. Fermat also proved that the law for refraction (bending) of light results from light's following the path that takes the shortest time. He founded number theory. Fermat formulated the notion of a line tangent to a curve and started the development of differential calculus, in which a rate of change is expressed as a function of time in equation form and also as a tangent to the curve associated with that equation.. This work helped lay the foundation for analysis. He and German Gottfried Leibniz formulated the principle that an equation with two unknown quantities can represent a curve. Leibnitz believed that man's mind can arrive at truths about entities by pure thought.

Since the Puritans forbade music in churches, but enjoyed it in domestic circumstances, much secular music was composed, published, and played. There were many musical clubs. The violin became very popular. Solo songs were much sung. The first English opera: "The Siege of Rhodes" was written and performed with women on stage. Writers of the time included John Milton, political philosopher James Harrington, poet Edmund Waller, Thomas Fuller, poet Abraham Cowley, and biographer Issak Walton. John Aubrey wrote anecdotes about famous men. Jeremy Taylor, chaplain to Charles I, wrote on theology. People still read French romances translated into English. Dancing was still popular. Coffee houses came into prominence as places of social discourse. The first coffee house was established in London in 1652; ten years later, there were 82 coffee houses in the City. There were elegant pleasure gardens, with a fee for access. They were used for promenades and picnics. Ladies and their gallants rendezvoused there. Cromwell introduced the habit of port drinking to England.

In 1657, one general Post Offices was established with one Postmaster General for all of England. No other person could have the horsing of the through-posts. It cost 2d. for a letter to or from 80 miles of London and 3d. for one outside 80 miles of London.

There was continual problem with Catholics. Where Papists or others had caused rebellion and insurrection and plundered, robbed, pillaged, murdered and raped, mayor, Justices and capital burgesses of such towns were given the power in 1642 to call, assemble, train, and arm soldiers for defense. The Committee of the Militia of London was given authority in 1647 to search all houses and places for Papists and to search for and seize any arms, ammunition, and war materials in custody of such persons. In 1648, all Papists and soldiers of fortune who had borne arms against Parliament were ordered to depart from within twenty miles of London and Westminster or be imprisoned as traitors. In 1657 convicted Papists and people marrying convicted Papists were required to take an oath renouncing the pope and Catholic Church or lose two-thirds of their lands and estate, retaining their house on the remaining one-third. If one went to mass in an ambassador's house, the fine was 100 pounds and imprisonment for six months, one half going to the informer. In 1659 all householders in London and Westminster had to give a list of persons lodging in their house, and the horses and arms there. But the laws against Catholics practicing their religion were not rigorously enforced, nor were those against adherents of the formerly established Church of England.

The Society of Friends was founded by the son of a weaver. They greeted everyone as "friend" and did not bow, remove their hat (as was the custom when before the king or an earl), or otherwise show any reverence to anyone. From 1650, they were called Quakers because they trembled when religiously stirred. They reverted to the ancient "thou" and "thee" appellations. Their dress was particularly simple, with no buttons, lace, ruffles, or embroidery. They hated ritual so much that they rejected baptism and communion. They did not observe the sabbath as a special day different from other days. They derided the holiness of churches. No clergy were admitted into their sect. When they met for divine worship, each rose to deliver extemporaneous inspirations of the Holy Ghost. Women were admitted to teach the brethren and were considered proper vehicles to convey the dictates of the spirit. Quakers believed that every man, in his own life, could be fully victorious over sin. The denied any clerical authority and all texts. They believed in the separation of church and state. They refused to swear to any oath, e.g. in court, or to participate in war. They refused to take off their hats to anyone but God. It was their practice to turn the other cheek when one cheek had been struck. If asked for his cloak, a Quaker would give it. He never asked more for his wares than the precise sum which he was determined to accept. The Quakers developed a value of making provision for children from a first spouse when remarrying. They carefully selected masters and mistresses who wanted to take on child apprentices for their suitability for such responsibility. The education of Quaker women did not decline, as it did for other women. From the fervor of their zeal, the Quakers broke into churches, disturbed public worship, and harassed the clergyman and audience with railing and reproaches. When brought before a magistrate, they show no reverence but treated him as an equal. Sometimes they were thrown into mad house or prisons and sometimes whipped or pilloried. They endured stoically under this suffering. Mary Fisher from Yorkshire introduced Quakerism to New England.

In 1653 there were separation agreements between spouses as to property, e.g. support and maintenance.

Cromwell had bad experiences with Parliaments. The Rump Parliament was a remnant of the Long Parliament. The army and then Cromwell, although a member, came to believe that its members were self- interested, preoccupied with perpetuating themselves in seats of power, and corrupt. They thought that their own hopes of reform in the law, in the church, and in public finances were being deliberately frustrated. Cromwell came to doubt that it would ever give the people adequate government and protection. He started to believe that one man as chief executive could do this better. Cromwell dismissed the Rump Parliament in 1653. A new constitution created a Puritan "Parliament of Saints". These men were nominated in various ways, such as by church parishes, and selected by Cromwell. This one-house Parliament of Saints in 1653 made Cromwell Lord Protector for life with executive power of the state, with responsibility for making peace and establishing order after a decade of civil strife and political chaos. He was to administer the government and be the chief magistrate. It also provided for triennial Parliaments (consisting of one house), and religious freedom for all except Roman Catholics and adherents of the formerly established Church of England. Cromwell did not tolerate the ritual of the formerly established English church nor allow any of its adherents to have any office under him. His was a purely Puritan government. He did not sell offices. The Parliament of Saints challenged many vested interests in property such as sales of delinquents' and Papists' lands. It clashed severely over the continuation of tithes to the church. It became disorderly when some declared the Parliament dissolved and left. Others remained in their seats. To avoid a Parliamentary crisis, Cromwell had soldiers close the Parliament of Saints and lock its doors. The people supported this action because they were dissatisfied with the state of public affairs. The next Parliament that was tried was elected on a new constitutional basis of men with 200 pounds, but these men voted to make Parliament sovereign without a chief executive, thereby abolishing the protectorate. Cromwell was distressed that this Parliament had also voted themselves to be the sole determinors of atheism and blasphemy instead of advancing liberty of religious conscience and religious toleration as Cromwell had advocated. dissolved this Parliament, declaring that it was not acting for the public good. A last Parliament was also dissolved by Cromwell for tending to loosen the bonds of government and thereby threatening the peace of the nation.

Cromwell had first ruled as a democratic leader who did not believe in force, but preferred to persuade with reason. He initially believed that people would do the right thing according to their consciences, but was disillusioned and then became autocratic. He came to rule as a military dictator. Payment of taxes was enforced by distraint. After 1654, he issued about 100 proclamations covering public amusements, roads, finances, the condition of prisons, the imprisonment of debtors, banning of dueling and cockfighting, law reform, control of religion and education, and reorganization of the army. The singing of ballads was banned. The Court of Chancery was reformed by proclamation. The established church was reformed and the power to interfere with different faiths was denied to it. Each parish could choose its form of service, whether Presbyterian, Congregational, Baptist, or any other seen as fundamental by the Puritans. No one was compelled to attend any particular church or to accept the discipline of any particular minister. But the Book of Common Prayer was forbidden. There was freedom of worship for Presbyterians, Independents, Baptists, Quakers, Catholics, and Jews (who had secretly migrated to England to avoid persecution on the continent), but not Prelatists (those favoring government of the church by bishops).

In 1655, Cromwell placed major generals in charge of eleven newly- established provinces. As their Governors, they had authority to levy troops, exact taxes imposed by the Protector, disarm Royalists and Catholics, examine into the conduct of the clergy and schoolmasters, arrest dangerous and suspicious persons, and prevent unlawful assemblies, and to enforce the existing laws against immorality and blasphemy. The only appeal was to the Protector. Since they were Puritans, they ordered public ale houses to close as dusk, banned idlers, minstrels, and actors, forbade exercising of horses on Sunday and the holding of markets on Saturday as well as Sunday, censored the press, and proscribed newspapers. Horse races, which meetings were used for seditious purposes, were closed. Theaters were closed. Dancing was discontinued. Organs and choirs in churches prohibited. Court masks continued because they provided soothing music. After a year, Cromwell withdrew the major-generals. From this time, men of property hated the idea of a standing army.

In 1657, the officers of a new Parliament modified the constitution and Cromwell approved it, to secure liberties of the people as they never before had. Under the modified constitution, there were again two houses. The Commons regained its old right of exclusively deciding on the qualification of its members. Parliamentary restrictions were imposed on the choice of members of the Council, officers of state, and officers of the army. A fixed revenue was voted to the Protector. No moneys were to be raised except by consent of Parliament. Liberty of worship was guaranteed to all except Papists, Prelatists, Socinians (who denied the divinity of Jesus), for those who denied the inspiration of the Scriptures. Liberty of conscience was secured for all. In 1658, Cromwell tried another Parliament, but dissolved it because it wrangled without resolution.

After Cromwell died, the people demanded the return of a genuine and free Parliament. The old constitution was restored and a new House of Commons was elected. It called Charles II to return to be king if he promised religious freedom and backpay to the army, which had not recently been paid. When Cromwell's Puritan soldiers were disbanded, they did not drift into thievery as royalists soldiers had before, but took up honest work such as baker, mason, brewer, baker, or haberdasher. Puritanism now made itself felt not by the sword, but in literature and politics. It affected the character of the English, who tend to be stoics, and imbued capitalists with a hard-working attitude.

- The Law -

After the civil wars, the law against enclosure was not enforced.

What was passed in Parliament in Cromwell's time were called statutes, but after Cromwell's time, these statutes were not recognized as legitimate.

"whereas Public Sports do not well agree with Public Calamities, not Public Stage-plays with the Seasons of Humiliation, this being an Exercise of sad and pious Solemnity, and the other being Spectacles of Pleasure, too commonly expressing lascivious Mirth and Levity ... Public Stage Plays shall cease, and be forborne instead of which are recommended to the People of this Land the profitable and seasonable considerations of Repentance, Reconciliation, and Peace with God, ..."

No book or pamphlet may be printed, bound, stitched, or sold or imported unless licensed and entered into the Register Book of the Company of Stationers. Officials of this company and of Parliament may search all places which they shall think meet for all unlicensed printing presses and all suspected printing houses, warehouses, and shops and other places for unlicensed books and pamphlets and papers and seize them and apprehend all authors, printers, and other involved people and bring them before Parliament or the Committee on Examinations for punishment. Justices of the peace and other officers may order doors and locks broken for this purpose. The fine is ten pounds for authors, five pounds for printers, two pounds for booksellers, and one pound for buyers who conceal a book bought. One half of each fine shall go to the person who discovers and prosecutes the offender, and the other half shall go to the poor. This law suppressed royalist newspapers but was enforced only with great difficulty.

All shall observe Sunday and days of Thanksgiving in their "duties of Piety and true Religion publicly and privately" and none may sell wares or goods, including fruit or herbs upon pain of forfeiture of such. None may, without reasonable cause, travel, carry burdens, or do any worldly labors or work whatsoever or pay a fine of 10s. This work shall include grinding grain, fulling in mills, burning turf or earth, gathering taxes, melting wax for candles, brewing, baking, butchering cattle, tailors fitting or carrying clothes, barbers trimming hair, being present at fairs or markets, or washing, whiting, or drying clothes. Nor may any one maintain or be present at wrestlings, shooting, bowling, ringing of bells for pleasure or pastime, masks, wake, church-ale, dancing, games, sport or, for those over 14, forfeit 5s., and for those having care or education of a child under 14, 12d. Maypoles, a "Heathenish vanity, generally abused to superstition and wickedness", shall be taken down by officers or forfeit 5s. per week. If any offender can't pay his fine, he shall be put in the stocks for three hours. However meat maybe dressed in private families, and victual sold in inns and victualling houses in a moderate way, and milk sold before 9a.m. or after 4p.m.

Persons of the trinity, angels, or saints shall be demolished. Altar and communion tables must not be raised but leveled. There may be no copes, surplices, superstitious vestments, or holy water fonts. There may be no crosses, crucifixes, pictures of the trinity, angels or saints on plates. All organs must be taken away.

The fine for using the Book of Common Prayer is five pounds for the first offense, ten pounds for the second offense, and one year imprisonment without bail for the third offense. The penalty for writing or preaching against the Directory for Public Worship is five to fifty pounds.

Blasphemies and heresies such as teaching or writing or printing that there is no God, that God is not almighty, that Jesus was not divine, that the resurrection of Jesus did not occur, that the Bible is not the word of God, or that there is no judgment day after death, are felony without benefit of clergy. If such an offender recants, he shall stay in gaol until he obtains two sureties. If he offends again after recantation, it is felony without benefit of clergy.

In 1650 adultery was declared to be a felony, except if the husband had been beyond the seas for three years or had been reputed to be dead. Incest was also declared to be a felony. It was defined as marrying or having carnal knowledge of one's grandparent, parent, sibling, mother's brother or sister, father's wife, mother's husband, son's wife, daughter's husband, wife's mother or daughter, or husband's father or son. Fornication was given a punishment of three months imprisonment and until security was obtained for one year for good behavior. It was defined as carnal knowledge of a virgin, unmarried woman, or widow. A common bawd or one keeping a brothel or bawdy house was to be whipped, set in the pillory, marked in the forehead by a hot iron with the letter: B, and then imprisoned for three years without bail and until there were sureties for good behavior for life. The second offense was felony without benefit of clergy. There was to be no corruption of the blood. However, juries were reluctant to convict for adultery and incest.

There shall be no profane swearing or cursing of forfeit by a lord 30s., a baronet or knight 20s., an esquire 10s., a gentleman 6s.8d., and all others 3s.4d.There is a double fine for the second offense. For the tenth offense, the offender shall be bound by sureties for good behavior for three years.