Part 3

Of the several species of fossil Terrapene described (Hay, 1908b:359-367, Auffenberg, 1958), most are clearly allied to Recent T. carolina. One species, Terrapene longinsulae Hay, (1908a:166-168, Pl. 26) from "... the Upper Miocene or Lower Pliocene...." of Phillips County, Kansas, however, is closely related to T. ornata (if not identical). I have examined the type specimen of T. longinsulae. Stock and Bode (1936:234, Pl. 8) reported T. ornata from sub-Recent deposits near Clovis, Curry County, New Mexico.

Economic Importance

Ornate box turtles, referred to as "land terrapins" or "land tortoises" over most of the range of the species, are regarded by most persons whom I have queried as innocuous. These turtles occasionally damage garden crops and have been known to eat the eggs of upland game birds. Terrapene ornata is seldom used for food. A. B. Leonard told me the species was eaten occasionally by Arapaho Indians in Dewey County, Oklahoma. Several specimens in the University of Kansas Archeological Collections were found in Indian middens in Rice County, Kansas, from a culture dated approximately 1500 to 1600 A. D. The flesh of T. ornata occasionally may be toxic if the turtle has eaten toxic fungi as has been recorded for T. carolina (Carr, 1952:147).

Study Areas

Preliminary studies and collections of specimens were made at a number of localities in northeastern Kansas in 1953 and 1954. Two small areas were finally selected for more intensive study. One of these areas, the University of Kansas Natural History Reservation, five and one-half miles north-northeast of Lawrence in the northeasternmost section of Douglas County, Kansas, is a tract of 590 acres maintained as a natural area for biological investigations. Slightly less than two thirds (338 acres) of the Reservation is wooded; the remainder consists of open areas having vegetation ranging from undisturbed prairie grassland to weedy, partly brushy fields (Fitch, 1952). Although ornate box turtles were not numerous at the Reservation, the area was selected for study because: 1) there was a minimum of interference there from man and none from domestic animals; 2) the vegetation of the Reservation is typical of areas where T. ornata and T. carolina occur sympatrically (actually only one specimen of T. carolina has been seen at the Reservation); and, 3) availability of biological and climatological data there greatly facilitated the present study. Actual field work at the Reservation consisted of studies of hibernation and long-term observations on movements of a few box turtles.

A much larger number of individuals was intensively studied on a tract of land, owned by Sophia Damm, situated 12 miles west and one and one-half miles north of Lawrence in the northwestern quarter of Douglas County, Kansas. The Damm Farm lies on the southern slope of a prominence--extending northwestward from Lawrence to Topeka--that separates the Kansas River Valley from the watershed of the Wakarusa River to the south. The prominence has an elevation of approximately 1100 feet and is dissected on both sides by small valleys draining into the two larger river valleys.

The Damm Farm (see Pl. 15) has a total area of approximately 220 acres. The crest of a hill extends diagonally from the middle of the northern edge approximately two thirds of the distance to the southwestern corner. Another hill is in the extreme northwestern corner of the study area.

The northeastern 22 acres were wooded and had small patches of overgrazed pasture. Trees in the wooded area were Black Walnut (Juglans nigra), Elms (Ulmus americana, U. rubra), Cottonwood (Populus deltoides), and Northern Prickly Ash (Xanthoxylum americanum). The areas used as pasture had thick growths of Buckbush (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus) mixed with short grasses (Bromus japonicus, Muhlenbergia Schreberi, and Poa pratensis). Farm buildings were situated in the wooded area at the end of an entry road. The southeastern 74 acres were cultivated; corn, wheat, and milo were grown here and fallow fields had a sparse growth of weeds.

Most of the western two thirds of the study area, comprising 124 acres, was open rolling prairie (hereafter referred to as "pasture") upon which beef-cattle were grazed (Pl. 16, Fig. 1; Pl. 17, Fig. 1; Pl. 18, Fig. 2). Rock fences (Pl. 17, Fig. 2) two to four feet high bordered the northern edge, southern edge, and one half of western edge of the pasture. A wagon track lead from a gate on the entry road, along the crest of the hill, to a gate in the southern fence. Except for the latter gate and for ocassional under-cut places in low areas, there were no openings in the rock fences through which box turtles could pass. A few trees--American Elm, Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), Red Mulberry (Morus rubra), Osage Orange (Maclura pomifera), Black Cherry (Prunus serotina), Box-Elder (Acer Negundo), and Dogwood (Cornus Drummondi)--were scattered along fences at the borders of the pasture and in ravines. Larger trees in a small wooded creek-bed at the southwestern edge of the pasture were chiefly Cottonwood, American Elm, Red Mulberry, and Black Willow (Salix nigra). The only trees growing on the pasture itself were a few small Osage Orange, none of which bore fruit.

Paths were worn along fences by cattle and in several places near the fence, usually beneath shade trees, there were large bare places where cattle congregated. Vegetation near paths and bare places was weedy and in some places there were tall stands of Smooth Sumac (Rhus glabra).

Rich stands of prairie grasses occurred along the top of the hill in the pasture; bluestems (Andropogon gerardi, A. scoparius) were the dominant species and Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) and Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans) were scattered throughout. A number of small areas on top of the hill were moderately overgrazed, as indicated by mixture of native grasses with an association of shorter plants consisting chiefly of Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia var. elatior), Mugwort (Artemisia ludoviciana), Japanese Chess (Bromus japonicus), and Asters (Aster sp.).

The upper parts of the hillsides were overgrazed moderately to heavily. Limestone rocks of various sizes were partly embedded in soil or lay loose at the surface. Depressions beneath rocks provided shelter for box turtles as well as for other small vertebrates. Native grasses were sparse in this area and gave way to Sideoats Grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), extensive patches of Smooth Sumac, and scattered colonies of Buckbrush.

Tall grasses were dominant on the lower hillsides and small patches of Slough grass (Spartina pectinata) grew in moist areas. Ravines originated at small intermittent springs on the sides of the hill. The banks of ravines were high and steep and more or less bare of vegetation. High, dense stands of Slough grass grew at intermittent springs and along the courses of ravines; sedges (Carex, sp.) grew where small pools of water formed and created marshy conditions. Prairie grasses along the tops of ravine embankments formed a narrow overhanging canopy of vegetation that was accentuated in many places where the sod was under-cut by erosion or by the activities of burrowing animals (Pl. 18, Fig. 1). Box turtles frequently sought shelter beneath this vegetational canopy or burrowed beneath the sod.

On the highest part of the pasture near the entry road several small areas were nearly bare, presumably because of heavy overgrazing; grasses (except for scattered clumps of Bouteloua curtipendula and Setaria lutescens) were absent and dominant vegetation consisted of Buffalo-bur (Solanum rostratum), Blue Vervain (Verbena hastata), Mullein (Verbascum Thapsus), Ragweed, Asters, and a few Prickly Pear (Opuntia humifusa). Two small areas on the pasture completely lacked vegetation; these may have been wallows or the sites of old salt-licks.

Three shallow stock ponds, behind earthen dikes in ravines, were present on the pasture. The pond near the farm buildings ("House Pond") and that in the southwestern part of the pasture ("Far Pond") were present when studies of box turtles were begun. The largest pond, in a deep ravine in the northern part of the pasture, was constructed in June, 1956, and became filled in approximately one month (Pls. 16 and 18). Pond embankments were chiefly bare of vegetation because of trampling by cattle; in a few places at the edge of the water, or in places too steep for cattle to walk, there were small patches of weeds, sedges, and Slough Grass. The ponds contained some water at all times of the year. The only vertebrates permanently inhabiting the ponds in the course of my studies were Bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana) and Leopard frogs (Rana pipiens).

The three parts of the pasture in which studies were concentrated were designated as separate subdivisions. The northwest corner area (28 acres) was triangular and bounded on two sides by rock fences and on its third side by a deep ravine. The southern ravine area (17 acres) constituted the part of the lower southern hillside drained by a series of ravines. The house pond area (seven acres) surrounded "House Pond." Habitat in these three subdivisions of the pasture was especially favorable for box turtles.

Materials and Methods

Observations were made at the Damm Farm on 102 days in the two-year period beginning in Autumn, 1954; observations were concentrated in the period from May to October although some observations were made in every month, January and February excepted. Field work was done chiefly in daylight hours but a few trips were made to the study area at night.

Routine handling of each turtle captured at the Damm Farm consisted of: marking, weighing and measuring turtle; recording the exact place of capture, body temperature and environmental temperature; and, recording miscellaneous items such as the presence of ectoparasites, injuries, distinctive markings, and in some instances, the approximate age of the turtle.

Excursions on the Damm Farm were made on foot in 1954 and 1955, and, in 1956, on horseback. By using a horse, more ground could be covered per unit of time, a better view could be obtained of immediate surroundings, and, cattle on the area, being accustomed to horses, did not become agitated as they would when unmounted persons were nearby.

The entire study area could not be inspected thoroughly in a single day. It was usually more profitable to find and mark turtles along fences, in ravines, or in other open areas, and subsequently to follow their movements away from these areas by means of trailing threads. Turtles could be observed from a distance through binoculars. Cultivated areas were regularly scanned with binoculars but turtles were seldom seen there. Behavior was observed by sitting motionless on rock fences or in a blind on top of a stepladder.

No box turtles were removed from the study area. Specimens obtained in other areas were used for studies of growth, reproduction, and food habits. Measurements, weights, and data concerning temperature and ectoparasites were obtained from specimens collected elsewhere as well as from individuals on study areas.

Turtles were obtained by hand-collecting and in unbaited traps; the number captured in a single day ranged from 12 to none. Traps, like those used by Packard (1956:9) for tree squirrels, were set in the mouths of burrows and dens, or--with leads to channel animals into the trap--along ravines and rock fences. Traps set in the open were covered to prevent death of turtles from overheating in direct sunlight. Live-trapping provided much valuable data, although quail, rabbits, opossums, and box turtles were caught with about equal frequency in the traps.

Turtles were marked by notching the marginal scutes of the carapace by means of a hacksaw blade, following the code system described by Cagle (1939). Notches, one eighth to one quarter of an inch deep and wide could be cut more quickly than filed and were more evident than drilled holes which often became plugged with soil and obscured. Hatchlings and juveniles were notched with a sharp knife.

Movements of individual turtles were studied by means of a turtle-trailing device--similar to the kind first described by Breder (1927) and later modified by Stickel (1950:355-356)--a tin can, cut to fit the shell of a turtle, with an axle that bore a spool of thread (Pl. 27, Fig. 1). The device was taped to the turtle; the free end of the thread was tied to a stationary object. Thread payed out from the spool through a guide-loop and marked the course of the turtle as it moved away from the starting point. Because of its great strength and elasticity (as compared to cotton), nylon sewing thread was used in trailers. Ordinarily, turtles were unable to break the thread if it became snarled or was expended. Cattle frequently tangled the thread and displaced it but did not often break it. Ordinary spools were cut down on a lathe so they would hold 600 to 800 yards of thread. Turtle-trailing provided an accurate record of where and how far a turtle had traveled, and to a lesser extent, the sort of activity in which the turtle had been engaged (evidence of feeding, forms, or trial nest holes). Trailers seemed not to alter the normal activity of turtles.

Prominent landmarks were rare or wanting in most places on the pasture. Locations of captures (or reference points in the movements of trailer-turtles) were determined by triangulation with a Brunton compass, using trees along fences as known points of reference. Rough maps were made in the field and used later, along with compass readings and measurements, to make a more precise record of movements and captures on a large map (scale, 100 feet to one inch) of the study area. Mapped points of capture in grassy areas were accurate within ten to twenty feet; points of capture in areas where landmarks were nearby were nearly exact. Areas were measured with a planimeter; distances traveled by individuals were measured with a cartometer.

Turtles were measured in the field to the nearest millimeter with large wooden calipers (of the type used by shoe salesmen) and a clear plastic ruler. Measurements in the laboratory, especially in studies of growth, were made, to the nearest tenth of a millimeter with dial calipers. Measurements made on each specimen examined in the field were: length of carapace, width of carapace, length of plastron (sum of lengths of forelobe and hind lobe), width of plastron (at hinge), and height. All measurements were made in a straight line. A spring scale of 500 gram capacity, used in the field, gave weights accurately within three grams. A triple-beam balance was used in the laboratory. Unless otherwise noted, measurements are expressed in millimeters and weights are expressed in grams.

Body temperatures were taken by means of a quick-reading Schultheis thermometer inserted into the distal portion of the large intestine with the bulb directed ventrally to avoid puncturing the bladder. Body temperature of turtles were altered little or not at all in the few seconds the turtles were held and no attempt was made (except for small juveniles) to insulate them from the warmth of my hands. Data recorded with body temperature were: air temperature (in shade, approximately one inch from turtle); ground temperature (or water temperature); behavior of turtle; weather conditions; nature of vegetation or other cover; and, time of day. Unless otherwise noted, temperatures are expressed in degrees Centigrade.