CHAPTER VII. Envoi

Envoi

“Tho’ world on world in myriad myriads roll round us Each with different powers and other forms of life than ours.”

I have spent sixty years in qualitative experiments in geology. I began with old volcanoes and geysers in the Yellowstone and the far west, and ended with experiments on the active Hawaiian volcano, Kilauea. Based on these experiments, I have written books about evolution of craters, and about distinct peculiarities of explosive eruptions from underground water.

The accusation that I am not orthodox in professional geology is false. Professional geology is largely continental because its field work has been on continents. My work has been oceanic; my field, seventy percent of the earth’s surface, extending over a thick crust down to the earth core. The earth core is fluid and massive and hot, as all geology agrees. Isostasy, which postulates a thin flexible shell, is violated by the ocean deeps and the volcanic ridges. Volcanic rift echelons like the Cordillera and the Hawaiian ridge are too long to be generated as the fracture of a crust fifty miles deep. The circularity and graduated size in linear stretches of the Pacific arcs are functions of a fractured thick-shell sphere. Similar gradation of arcs is on the lunar surface. Arguments, based on the knowledge of meteors, for an iron core and for large lunar craters are without analogy. Substratum theories, from Stübel to Daly, do not agree with oceanic volcanism. Gravitational crust balance applies better to a primitive thick fault block crust than to a thin shell. Earth lavas, as natural experimental models, imitate lunar features on small and large scales. Both make consistent history for two similar globes. Volcanology has to stand as global and ancient, and any geologist may accept the reasonings here enumerated without being unorthodox.

The unquestioned certainties of modern seismology, the transmission of elastic waves through the globe to sensitive recording pendulums, are that the crust is 1,800 miles thick, that the core is a heavy ball of white hot fluid, and that its temperature at crustal contact has been estimated by Verhoogen at 2200° Centigrade. The deep crust is less dense than the core, and is commonly conceded to be basic heavy rock not unlike stony meteorites. The outside shell under oceans, and over three-quarters of the earth, is covered by basaltic lava, and wherever igneous rock has been formed by volcanic action, intrusive or extrusive black basic lava recurs as dikes and outflows.

ARMOR PLATE AT OCEANS ARMOR PLATE AT CONTINENTS EXTERIOR OF FUNDAMENTAL GLOBE TO WHICH ADJUSTMENT TENDS CORE LIMIT TO WHICH ADJUSTMENT TENDS VOLC. OCEAN CHAINS OF OCEAN VOLCANOES VOLC. CONT. CHAINS OF CONTINENTAL BORDER VOLCANOES

ON THE PAGE OPPOSITE is a diagram of a hypothetical globe section near the equator, showing oceans and continents in true surface ratio; fault block segments of rigid crust isostatically supported on a liquid core; sixteen volcanic partitions, oceanic and continental; and Stübel’s “armorplate” from pristine volcanic eruption. Possibly the profile is tetrahedral. My argument for this globe section is based on the following:

A globe of core, siliceous shell, and armorplate was formed by primitive volcanic eruptions.

The shell resulted from external aggregation of solids and gases and internal segregation about a molten core.

The fault blocks came from shrinkage of the shell over a liquid core, adjusted by luni-solar gravitation and rotation through the pre-geologic ages.

The continental and oceanic boundaries of the fault blocks were determined by elevated and sunken blocks with core volcanism of escaping gas melting walls and laying down an exterior siliceous armorplate on the earliest solidified globe. This in continents is the seismologists’ lighter exterior layer underlaid by denser rock at the armorplate bottom.

Continental volcanism (VOLC.-CONT.) became differentiated from oceanic volcanism, by light atmospheric pressure over the raised blocks and much greater water pressure over three-quarters of the earth, the sunken blocks.

The subdivision is represented in the diagrammatic section on the globe by three-quarters of the section being ocean, namely twelve-sixteenths.

The section shows twelve-sixteenths as sunken blocks, four-sixteenths as raised blocks. The four sixteenths by the tetrahedral hypothesis of Lowthian Green and Michel-Lévy make the four continental protuberances.

Twelve-sixteenths of the surface is broken by fundamental rifts of irregular shapes, some of them north-south, controlled by centrifugal stresses and corresponding to the north-south deeps and heaps and known rifts. These have persisted since the first volcanism of primitive time.

Circum-continental volcanism is represented on the diagram by VOLC.-CONT., oceanic volcanism is represented by VOLC.-OCEAN. Both are shown as interblock rifts, adjusted through the ages (exaggerated on the drawing) and always tensional over expansional core pressure, with exothermal heating agencies.

The sixteen fundamental block boundaries correspond approximately to sixteen fundamental volcanic fault blocks known vaguely on the globe. Something similar is known on the moon. The rifts are the boundaries of sixteen blocks, some polyhedral, some elongate. Some are oceanic like New Zealand-Tonga, some are ancient and continental like Arabia. The imperfectly mapped ocean deeps are boundary lines. The rifts of Africa and Chile-Patagonia are boundary lines. The great arcs of Himalaya, Java-Sumatra, and Aleutian ridges are boundary lines of circular blocks. Possibly they were circular calderas of engulfment on the primitive spheroid. The edge of Mare Imbrium on the moon shows fault rifts. The straight alignment of lunar calderas hints at moon rifts under an unmapped mosaic. The blocks of the theory of continental drift, are guesses at a mosaic of crust blocks. But the possibility drift theory omitted is that the blocks are deep. Except for the Lowthian Green, Wegener, Holmes, and Daly speculations, based on thin crust blocks of continents, no mapping of the shell mosaic exists. It is not feasible until we map the detail of ocean bottoms. Primitive blocks require acceptance of a thick crust and justify new speculation. The cracks between blocks are the volcanic partitions of the earth, which I call ignisepts.

There are many points for speculation, some of them subject to mathematical inquiry. Does surface water penetrate the partitions? Is it high pressure and saline under oceans? How do deep earthquakes stem from friction 300 miles down under the Cordillera and the west Pacific? Do earth and moon spheres as rounded tetrahedra crack similarly? Because of rotation are north-south cracks dominant? Are the core fluids changing volcanism through the ages?]

The twenty-eight percent of earth surface which lies above the sea in continents is made up of siliceous sediments of shallow water basins, with quartz as the dominant mineral, their strata wrinkled, and eroded into mountain ranges. Desert and lake or river bottoms make up most of the remainder. This material, when ancient, was changed by heat and infiltration into what are called gneisses, schists, and granites; and the process of granitization is among the metamorphic processes. It is a process of deep burial, heat, gases, and water which has always been a puzzle, and may affect ancient volcanic lavas wherever they have covered the land. It is a process of solution of silica, and its deposition is by steam and other vapors.

In the same way volcanic action by the outpouring of lava through cracks is a process of solution of the deeper crust of the earth by hot gases, largely burning hydrogen. Lavas emerging from Etna or Mauna Loa are melted earth crust, dissolved and brought up by this same hydrogen and by other gases from the walls of profound cracks leading down to the earth core. Volcanism and metamorphism are thus the same process, namely the action of gases up cracks through deep earth crust. But metamorphism acts on continental sediments, whereas modern volcano eruption acts through sea bottom and sea shore faulting, very ancient features of the earth and distinct from continents. In Hawaii no metamorphic rock fragments have been found.

Such primitive oceanic fault fissures extend under continents remnant from the time of evolution of continents. They bring up the metamorphic hot gases, which in siliceous sediments, make granites and gneisses and schists with the aid of groundwater. Geology has no knowledge whatever of whether this metamorphic process affects the hard rock under the oceanic muds, because geology has never collected a piece of that rock. Geology however knows inclusions and explosive fragments from oceanic volcanoes, and it does not find there granite and gneiss and schist. However, generalization does not apply to continental volcanoes like those of Italy and Africa.

The beginning of fossils on continents is commonly considered to have been 500 million years ago, and this may be extended another 1,500 million years for the most ancient identifiable continental rocks, and an estimated total thickness of 120,000 feet to the bottom of the most ancient sediments on earth. We know nothing of thickness of most ancient volcanic deposits under the oceanic mud.

This brings us to the great German explorer Stübel, who mapped volcanoes of the Andes, founded a museum of his work in Leipzig, and published monographs on the Andes. He wrote a final book, including material on Mount Pelée, on the “genetic differences of volcanic mountains.” But such modern continentalists as Daly and Bucher in America have disregarded Stübel. Daly is the authority on a shallow earth shell and substratum of basalt, and Bucher of Columbia University is a specialist on continental sediments and granitization.

The point is that Stübel made a profound generalization which nobody has proved wrong. The earth is at least 3,000 million years old, and when oceanic fault blocks sank and received condensing atmospheric water and continental fault blocks remained high and became eroded, there was already a thick shell of volcanic lavas. For volcanism was the most ancient process on the earth’s surface. It had always brought gases up cracks from the core, making atmosphere, water, and extrusions. Stübel, called the extrusive shell on the outside of the primitive crust the globe’s armorplate. The primal gas escape, whatever the ancestral turbulence inside, had to come up cracks and make volcanic deposits. It is commonly presumed that the very thick inside crust formed rapidly by cooling and solidifying from outside the core inward, and from inside the atmosphere outward. The latter surface was eventually under water cooling over most of the earth and under air cooling over the small continental area, a marked difference of temperature and pressure for the two areas.

Seismometry teaches that most of the crust is of fairly uniform density. Therefore, presumably, a thick crust was arrived at early. There was obviously a time of conflict between the weighting of the crust by its heavier accumulations next to the core, by its lighter accumulations exteriorly under water and air, and finally by its external armor plate of unknown comparative weight, made of volcanic lava. For all we know, this might have been volcanic pumice. Rapidity of crust thickening is speculative.

Right here there is an element of mystery in speculation as to which has to accommodate comparison with the moon, the merging of atmospheric condensation with volcanism, and the merging of suboceanic condensation of lava with pristine eruption. This is too hard a nut to crack, in our current ignorance of rock under sea bottom muds. But Stübel’s insistence on a coating of lava armor plate over both continents and sea bottoms as the earlier volcanism, and an external veneer on the earth, is unavoidable. If it were all basalt like the present oceanic volcanoes, we should find basalt in continents underneath the granites. We do not do so. If it were all light weight granitizing by segregation of silica, we should find commonly granite and obsidian fragments within oceanic lavas. We do not do so. We have to conclude then that our sections, topographic and geologic, do not go deep enough. And as for the ocean bottoms, we have no sections at all. But Stübel was right. An unknown volcanic eruption period had to precede geologic volcanoes.

The question of ancient greenstones in Africa, Scandinavia, and Canada is much discussed, for there were old volcanic lavas in many places; mixed with gneisses, schists, and granites. They were not a deep layer, but presumed to be ancient remnants of interspersed lavas among sediments. They are one more evidence that volcanic eruption goes back to the time of the most ancient rocks on continents and that its lavas were affected by metamorphism. But no continuous deep stratum of greenstones is known. At depths of fifty miles, under continents only, is the Mohorovicic change to denser rock. This is an echo surface in earthquake waves, but it is absent over the whole Pacific. It may be the top of the armor plate.

Justice Holmes wrote that the Constitution of the United States was an experiment. That all law of the nation works salvation by prophecy based on experiment. The experiments were extended to the Bill of Rights and all the amendments to the Constitution. I feel that geology--in view of its extreme ignorance of submarine rocks, ores, metals, oils, spring waters, temperatures, magnetism, gravity, and gases for most of the earth--needs a bill of rights and numerous amendments to its constitution. Its salvation by prophecy needs to be based on experiments with instruments, drill rigs, and anchored laboratories in this vast area. These experiments, superficially, have been conducted by oceanographic sampling of bottom materials, by gravity pendulums operated in submarines, by cameras on sea bottoms, and collections of bottom waters, by tests of radioactivity of bottom materials, by echo sounding to determine thickness of muds, by volcanology on oceanic islands, by topographic surveying of the bottom, and by all the excellent work of the oceanographic and geologic stations and their seismographs, with some studies of marine chemistry, physics, and biology. The conclusions in this book amount to only one small prophecy based on experiments with volcanoes. But the rock under deep ocean mud is still uncollected.

My volcano experiments are not influenced by any consensus of text books. I was educated on textbook opinions and found geologic science deficient in experimental measurement of the field progress of erosion, sedimentation, deformation, and eruption. I expended most of my teaching in a plea for field observatories of time measurement of these four processes. The plea has done some good, and in this century we have seen grow up the International Geophysical Union. Experiment stations have multiplied, to make geophysics and geochemistry pure quantitative sciences. But they are generally commercial and have not extended to deep boring under oceans.

Science is not doing all it can. Finances and engineering are competent to contact sea bottom directly with expensive machines not yet invented and to create oceanic rock science. Offshore boring for oil is not enough. Pure science needs an example by financiers like Carnegie and Rockefeller who are not seeking profit. Engineering advice positively can reach under the few hundred feet of mud, find the rock, and bore into it in 2,000 fathoms. The first man who does it will open a new frontier. All honor to Shepard, Ewing, Piggot, Pettersson, and Kullenberg, men who have barely broken ground in this science. The whole of volcanology depends on collecting the crustal rock under the mud.

Hoyle’s book “The Nature of the Universe” takes us one step farther. It shows that all science is essentially cosmology, and science deals with the origin and progress of all nature. I would go farther than the universe. I would include the science of life and of our brains. We need an imaginative picture starting with the outer universe. We end on the earth with volcanoes and the birth of life.

Hoyle and Lyttleton of Cambridge have presented a condensation of current astrophysics, which includes earth, moon, and planets; sun and stars; origin and future of stars; and origin of solar systems. A most gratifying conclusion is that the background material of space creates hydrogen. This is proved by precise mathematical equations. This accounts for the expanding universe under the pressure of such creation. The outermost nebulae continually pass beyond the speed of light. The galaxies move out into infinite space endlessly. They are renovated endlessly by gravitation from hydrogen eternally created.

The sun, by knowledge built up from the days of Jeans and Eddington, contains more than ninety percent of hydrogen, and the small remainder is helium, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and iron. It maintains its surface temperature by nuclear reactions from within outward, at a rate suitable to make helium out of hydrogen, so as to compensate for the energy which the sun radiates.

This dominance of hydrogen inside the solar star makes it impossible that the earth should be solar. Rather, it was a product of a companion star, a supernova which exploded and, with excessive heat, created elements atomically. The sun was a binary pair of stars, and the companion occupied the place of the four greater planets. The remnant body, after explosion, moved away.

A gaseous ring formed around the sun condensing from many molecules to rotating superplanets. These broke up many hundred million years ago into Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Small blobs escaped to become the inner planets including the earth. The earth captured small solids and acquired the moon as a satellite. It got radioactive matter exteriorly, plus nitrogen, water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.

There is a hundred times more hydrogen per unit of mass in the sun than in the planets. Its supply will last for 50,000 million years. The solar system is tunneling through variable interstellar gas. It picks up more or less material, and so changes climates occasionally. This makes such episodes as the ice ages on earth. Lyttleton estimates that the dust clouds encountered form bundles of particles captured by the sun to make comets.

The mathematics of the interior of the sun, applied by Bethe to the use of carbon and nitrogen as catalysts and changing hydrogen to helium, is a model of experimentation. It should be imitated to explain Hawaiian basalt. The core of the earth produces gas reactions up cracks. The gases act on deep crust. The surface product is olivine basalt. What are the reactions between gas and crust to make Mauna Loa foam fountains? This problem has not been tackled. Geologists have clung to a theory of shallow reservoirs.

The astronomers of Cambridge, successors of the American experimenter George Ellery Hale and of Eddington and Jeans, are not the final word in cosmology. There will be a final word. The picture created from background material to gas, from gas to galaxies, and from galaxies to solar systems ends for us in our planet with a white hot liquid core. Nuclear reactions created this from the superheat of an exploding supernova. Our erupting volcanoes are the end product. We can sit beside erupting lava fountains and watch hydrogen flames, the same gas that was made of the background material in the universe.

All this is outcome of gravitation. It extends from the first eddies of hydrogen in outer space to the final rotation of the earth. The final hydrogen, with carbon, made life on the earth. The five elements of volcanic gas are identical with the five elements of organic chemistry. Dr. Hoyle mistakenly concludes that we have no clue to our own fate. But he points out that the universe is continuous creation. Our picture is one instant of time in an everlasting now. Mind is an everlasting unit beyond which we cannot go.

It is illogical to pay any attention to existence after death unless we pay equal attention to existence before birth. All is continuous creation. The making of hydrogen is just as true within the creation of life as within the universe. Life is under gravitation. Gravitation controls the instantaneous moving picture, even the emergence of life from volcanic gases under enormous water pressure at sea bottom. It is just as much subject to experiment as the outer boundary of the universe.

Life is an end product; and it thinks, worships, and experiments. Treating life and volcanoes as end products of Hoyle’s universe makes science fundamentally cosmology.

One final comment, after looking at sea bottom eruptions through all the ages. Continental life came out of the sea, and original life comes continually from the earth core. This gives new dignity to the future search for global action on the sea bottom.

The “emergent evolution” of Lloyd Morgan makes much of mutation as accounting for progress from unconscious life to consciousness, consciousness to memory, memory to reasoning, and reasoning to spirituality. Each one of these is a new mutation, in the same sense as a new fruit by Burbank. The first unconscious life may be considered a mutation from the inorganic of the globe. The totally unknown pressure-temperature conditions of volcanic eruption through the cracking earth of ocean bottom, and the ground waters under the ocean, lend a final dignity to exploration of that frontier.

Hoyle writes that the ultimate goal of the New Cosmology is continuous creation in outer space. The ultimate goal of the New Volcanology is continuous creation in oceanic depths.

INDEX

=aa=, 54, 67, 78, 104, 121, 124, 125, 129, 148, 174

Abbot, 159

Absaroka Range, 8

Adak Harbor, 141

Adams, C. E., 110

Africa, 181, 182

Agassiz, Alexander, 20, 25, 55, 65, 72, 164

Agassiz Museum, 17, 19

Aghileen Pinnacles, 140

Agricultural Experiment Station, Kodiak, 138

Agua cone, 81

Akutan Island, 154

Alaska, 30–31, 55, 72–75, 81, 82, 84, 110, 114, 117, 127, 137–145, 154, 169, 172, 173, 183

-- expeditions to, 55, 72–75, 84, 138

Alaska Commercial Company, 141

Albatross (ship), 170

Aleutian arc, 82

Aleutian eruptions, 169

Aleutian Geographical Observatory, 142

Aleutian Islands, 55, 75, 84, 110, 114, 127, 137–145, 154, 172, 173

-- expeditions to, 55, 72–75, 84, 138

Aleutian trench, 31

Alfaro, Anastasio, 79

Algonkian, 28

Allen, E. H., 12, 112, 115, 129

Alps, the, 103, 116

Alyea, Hubert, 5

Amazon River, 82

Amchitka Island, 141

Amerada Company, 112

American Journal of Science, 113

American Museum, 56

American Relief Committee, 63

amphibian vehicles, 74, 138, 142–143, 168

Anderson, C. A., 137

Anderson, J., 111

Anderson, Tempest, xii, 65, 71, 76, 84

Anderson, the cook, 8

Andes, the, 78, 82, 116, 181

Andrews, E. C., 112

Angaha, 147–149

Antigua, 157

Appalachian basin, 50, 52

Appalachian Mountains, 18, 46–49, 51–52, 116

Archean granites, 8

Arizona, 25–28

arrowroot, 160

Asama Volcano, 78, 107–108

Asama-Bandai system, 108

Ascutney Mountain, 7, 40, 53

Asia, mountain ranges of, 117

Aso Volcano, 108

astronomy, 6, 30, 147–150, 172–173, 184–185

Atka, 72, 75

Atlantic Ocean, 53, 170

-- deeps of, 53

Attu, 140–141

Auckland, 109–110

Audubon, J. J., 3, 4

Australia, 132, 163

-- science congress in, 132

Bad Lands of South Dakota, 23, 24, 37–38

Baker, Ruth, 155, 168, 169

Baker Island, 135–136

Baldwin, R. G., 172

Ballard, Stanley S., 173

Ballou, Howard M., 91

Bandai Volcano, 42–43, 45, 106–108, 110

Barbados, 61–62, 158, 160

Barnard, Mr. and Mrs., 159

Barrios, 81

Barton, G., 18

Bartrum, J. A., 110

Barus, Carl, 54

bat, giant, 149

Bay of Plenty, 110

bear hunts, 72, 139–140, 143

Beecher, C., 19

Belcher, ...., 156

Belize, 79

Bellingham, Wash., 143–144

Bergen, 12

Bergson, H., xii

Bering Sea, 74, 140

Berkshire Hills, 46

Bermel, Colonel, 156

Bermuda, 161

Bernhardt, Sarah, 5

Berry, Robert, 56

Bethe, H. A., 185

Big Horn expedition, 8

Bingham, Hiram, 147

Bird, Isabella, 91

birds, 135, 141, 148–149

-- gannets, 135

-- goonies, 135

-- malau, 148–149

-- man-of-war, 135

-- murres, 141

-- terns, 135

Birdseye, Claude H., 89, 111, 129–130

Bishop Estate, 89

Bishop Museum, 135

Black Forest, 14

Black Growler, 10

Black Hills, xii, 21, 22, 23–25, 28, 46–47, 78

-- surveys of (1898, 1899), 23–25

Bloch, C. C., 168

Blue Beard’s Castle, 157

Blue Hill, Mass., 77

Bluff, the, 134

Bogoslof, 74, 75, 78, 110, 140–141

-- eruption of 1907, 75, 141

Bohemia, 14

Boiling Lake, 11

boiling lake, 80

boiling springs, 40, 42

bombing of Mauna Loa, 153–154, 161

Bonin Islands, 109

Boscotrecase, 65–68

Boshu Peninsula, 133

Boston, 16–17, 19, 37, 43, 56, 77, 85, 91, 161

-- mapping of, 16–17

Bottoms, the, 157

Boulder Dam, 169

Boutwell, John Mason, 21–22, 24

Bowie, William, 112

Boynton, H. C., 19, 168, 172

Boyrie, W., 142

Bradford, Alex, 138, 142

Bradshaw Mountains, 25–28

Brazil, 40

Brigg, J. J., 65

Brigham, W. T., 91, 164

Bright Angel fault, 30

Bristol Bay, 140

Brock, R. W., 14

Brontotherium, 24

Brooklyn, 56

Brooks, Alfred, 18

Brown, E. W., 100

Brown, William Garrott, 20

Brun, Albert, 88, 92

Brush, G. J., 21

Bucher, W., 181

Bund, Yokohama, 132

Burkland, Albert, 89, 111, 129

Cache Creek, 11

California, 39, 89, 103, 110, 111–113, 114–116, 136–137, 154

-- University of, 89, 137

-- volcanoes, 136

California Institute of Technology, 111

Calumet and Hecla, copper company, 72

Camiquin Island, 76

Cambrian, 6, 9, 22, 23, 28

-- fossils, 22

-- shales and limestones, 23

Cambridge, Mass., 164

Campbell, Archibald, 163

Canada, 6, 136, 182

Canadian Rockies, 23

Canary Islands, 131

Canna (arrowroot), 160

Canoe Bay, 142

Cape Nome, 141

Carib cones, 71

Caribbean Sea, 79, 117, 157, 183

-- expeditions to, 55

-- islands of, 55–65, 67, 76, 108

Carribee line, 66

Carisso (ship), 150

Carnegie, Andrew, 184

Carnegie Institution, 78, 86, 90, 111, 112

-- Geophysical Laboratory of, 76, 86, 111

Carnegie Palace, Costa Rica, 79

Cartago earthquake of 1910, 78–84

Cartago expedition, 84

Cartwright, Bruce, 135

Cascade Mountains, xii, 82, 136

catastrophes, 55–84, 103–106, 132–134, 156

Catskills, 43

Central America, 55, 78–84

-- expedition to, 55

Chadron Formation, 22

Chain of Craters, 118, 125, 154–155

Challenger (ship), 170

Charleston, 43, 45, 103

-- earthquake, 43, 45

Charlotte Amalie, 157

Chateau Belair, W. I., 59, 61, 159

Chernofski village, 141

Cherry Island, 103

Chicago, 72

Chicago Natural History Museum, 24

Chilean coastal plain, 82

Chilton, C., 112

China, rivers of, 41

Chourré, ...., 122

Christchurch College, 110

Christiansand, Norway, 12

Christophersen, Erling, 135

Chugul, 141

Church, Dr., 57

Cincinnati, 53

Cincinnati arch, 50

clams, 135

Clark, W. O., 111

Clive, ...., 11

Coal Measures, 28

Coan, Titus, 91

Coast Survey, 137, 170

-- station at Sitka, 137

Cody, Frank, 73, 123

Colby, F. T., 72–73

Collins, George, 135

Colorado, 28, 169, 173

Colorado River, 26, 38

Comstock Lode, 18

Congresses, 12, 112, 132, 134

-- Australia Science, 132

-- Hawaii, 112

-- Japan, 134

-- London Geography, 12

-- Pacific Science, 112, 134

-- Zurich Geological, 12

Connecticut River, 7

Constitution, U. S., 182

continental divide, 36

continental mediterranean sea, 22, 53

continental volcanoes, 181

Cook Channel, 109

Cook Strait, 110

Cooke, C. Montague, 135

Cooke, Joshiah, 5

copra, 148–149

coral islets, 135

Cordillera, 21, 49, 67, 78–84, 137, 177

Cosequina, 80

cosmology, 185–186

Costa Rica, 55, 79, 80, 108

-- earthquake, 55

-- rocky mountains of, 55

Costa Rica-Mexico line, 108

Cotton, C. A., 110

crabs, 149

Cramton, Louis C., 114, 136, 162

Crandall Creek mining claim, 8

crater lake, 80

Crawford, David L., 162

Croney, J. E., 63

Crooks Canyon, 26

Crooks Complex, 26–27

Crosby, W. O., 18, 72

cross-country cars, 131–132, 138

Crusoe, Robinson, 120

Culebra Cut, 82

Curtis, G. C., 56, 59, 159

Curzon, G. N., 12

Custer, G. A., 8

Daly, R. A., 7, 9, 18, 92, 177–181

Dana, Edward, 113

Dana, James D., 21, 91, 113, 116, 164

Darton, N. H., 21, 22

Darwin, C. R., 6

Darwin, George, 4, 32

Daubrée, A., 16, 30

Davis, W. M., 7, 16, 40, 165

Day, A. L., 12, 86, 92, 112, 115, 124

De Candolle, C., 4, 35

de Vis-Norton, L. W., 111

Deadwood, 23–25

Dean, Arthur L., 162

Death Gulch, 11–12

deformation, 32, 76

deltas, leaf, 43

Denmark, 12

Denver, 169, 173

Devil’s Tower, 23, 25

Diamond Head, 122

Dillingham, Walter F., 114

disasters, 55–84, 103–106, 111, 132–134, 156

Dixie (ship), 56–59

Dodge, Francis, 90

Doelter, C., 16, 53

Dominica, 11, 66, 158

Dominion Museum, 109

Dorsey, E. W., 43

Dranga, Ted, 135–136

Drexel Institute, 73

Dunedin, 109–110

Dutch Harbor, 72, 74, 141, 144

Dutton, C. E., 7, 29–30, 48, 116

Eakle, A. S., 72–74

Earhart, Amelia, 125

earth core, 185

earth crust theory, 115–117

earthquake centers, 169

earthquake frequency, 131

earthquakes, 30–31, 45, 55–84, 92, 103–106, 111, 114, 132–134, 137, 145–147, 154–165, 168–169

-- Cartago, 80

-- Charleston, 43, 45

-- Costa Rica, 55

-- Hawaii, 145–147

-- Kapoho, 154, 165

-- Kingston, 83–84

-- Messina, 55, 71

-- Montserrat, 156–161

-- Napier, 45, 111

-- Sakurajima, 103–106

-- San Francisco, xii, 45, 55, 134, 137

-- Tokyo, 103, 114, 132–134, 168

-- Valparaiso, 55

-- Yakutat Bay, 30–31, 37, 45

East Indies, 170

Eastman Kodak Company, 91

eclipse of sun, 147–150

Ecuador, 78

Eddington, A. A., 5, 184–185

Eddy, Johnny, 62

Eggleston, Julius W., 17

Einstein, Albert, 5

“elevation craters”, 131

Eliot, C. W., 18, 55, 63

Emden (ship), 140

Emerson, Oliver, 54, 100, 123, 129

Emmons, Delos C., 153

Emmons, Samuel Franklin, xi, 21, 22

English, T. S., 158

English Channel, 34

English strata, 21

Eocene Tertiary, 46

erosion, 10, 30, 32, 38, 43, 48, 76

-- model, 43

eruption cycles, 166–167

eruption index, 77

eruptions, 32, 45, 55–84, 120–125, 130–131, 169, 173–176

-- Alaska, 75, 141, 169

-- Halemaumau, 120–124, 130–131

-- Irazu, 79–80

-- Mauna Loa, 125, 173–176

-- Lassen, 136

-- Pelée, 45, 56–65, 71

-- Tarumai, 77–78

-- Vesuvius, 65–72

Europe, mountain ranges of, 117

Europe, study in, 12–16

evolution, 6, 116, 186

-- theory of, 6

Ewing, M., 184

expeditions, 55–84, 103–111, 114, 132–150, 154–161

-- Alaska, 55, 72–75, 84, 114, 138, 143, 154

-- Cartago, 84

-- Howland and Baker, 135–136

-- Japan, 55, 77–78, 84, 104–109, 114, 132–134

-- Kilauea-Tarumai, 84

-- Martinique, 55–65, 156–161

-- Montserrat, 161

-- New Zealand, 103, 109–111

-- Niuafoou, 114, 147–150

-- Pelée-Soufrière, 55–65, 84, 156–161

-- Tokyo, 114

-- Vesuvius, 55, 65–72, 84

experiments, 4–5, 17, 32–54, 76, 78, 85–113, 125–132, 138, 142–143, 154–156, 168, 171–173, 176–177, 182–186

-- field, 76, 85–113

-- laboratory, 4–5, 32–54, 168, 171–172

Falcon Island, 110

Faraday, M., 16, 29

faulting, 28–29

Ficus, 60

field experiments, 76, 85–113

field work, 7–12, 21–31, 55–84, 138, 142–143, 177

Fiji, 147

Finch, R. H., 99, 120–121, 132, 136–137, 144, 154, 162, 168, 173

Firehole River, 39

Flett, J. S., 76

“floating islands”, 92, 96

flying fox, 149

Foerster, Captain, 140

folding, model of, 50–52

foot prints in lava, 120

Forbes, John, 173

Fort de France, 56

Fortieth Parallel Survey, 8, 22, 25

fossa magna, 109

fossils, 181

Fouqué, F., 16, 53

Frank Landslip, the, 45

Franklin, Benjamin, 71

Frear, Walter F., 89

Freiberg, 14

Friedlaender, I., 76, 103, 162

Fujiyama, 81, 109, 134–135

fumaroles, 11–12, 62, 65, 68, 80, 108, 129, 156, 158, 160

Futu, 147, 149

gannets, 135

Gardner, John, 139–142

gas-heat theory, 59

Geikie, Archibald, xi, 12, 116

Geodetic Survey of India, 157

Geological Congress, Zurich, 12

Geological Society of America, 76, 164, 166

Geological Survey of Great Britain and Ireland, 12

Geological Survey, U. S., 17–22, 50, 54–56, 64, 89–90, 111–114, 129–131, 136–138, 142, 154, 157, 169, 172–173

Geophysical Laboratory, Wash. D. C., 112

Georgetown, W. I., 159–160

Geovision Ltd., 163

Germany, 12–16

geyser basins, 10

geysers, 9, 39–40, 42, 48

-- as eroders, 39–40

geyser-spring experiments, 41

Geyserville, 112, 137

Giacometti, Guido, 153, 163

giant bat, 149

Giant’s Causeway, 23

Gilbert, Grove Karl, 7, 64

Gillie, Miss, ...., 157

glacial periods, 6, 10, 45

glaciers, 44, 48

Glass Mountain, 136

Goethals, General, 82

Goldschmidt, Victor M., 14, 16

Goodrich, ...., 18

goonies, 135

Gordon-Cumming, C., 91

Göteborg, 13

Grabau, Amadeus, 17

Grand Canyon, 24, 26, 28–30, 37

-- model of, 30, 38

Grand Hotel, Japan, 132–133

Grange, L. I., 111

granitization, 181

Grant, Willie, 3

gravitation, 185–186

Great Britain, 12, 162

-- Geological Survey of, 12

Great Lakes, 25, 45

Great Plains, 10, 22

Green, W. L., 91

Green River, 30

greenstones, 182

Greenwell, Mr. and Mrs. Frank, 146

Gregory, H. E., 112, 135

Grodzinski, P., 172

Grosvenor, Gilbert, 142–143

Groth, P. G., 13

Guadeloupe, 66

guano diggings, 135–136

Guatemala, 55, 80–82

Gulf of Alaska, 138, 171

Gulf of Mexico, 10, 36

Gummeré, Harry, 12, 33, 72–73

Hague, Arnold, xi, 8

Hakamagoshi, 105

Hakone, 134

Hale, George Ellery, 185

Haleakala, 164, 165

Haleakala, Kohala, Kea line, 165

Halemaumau, 77, 86, 89, 92–93, 95, 112, 115, 117–119, 120–124, 127, 128, 131, 147, 151–155, 166

-- eruption, 117–124, 130–131

Hammond, W. H., 168, 172

Hannon, Arthur, 112

hardness tests, 168, 171–172

Harney Peak, xii

Hart, F. R., 79

Harvard, xi, 3–7, 16–19, 32–56, 72, 89, 92, 101

-- laboratory experiments, 32–54

-- study at, 3, 32–54

-- teaching at, 55–56, 72

Hawaii, island of, v, 28, 77, 78, 112, 142, 143, 154, 164, 165

Hawaii Channel, 123

Hawaii earthquake crisis (1929), 145–147

Hawaii Geological Survey, 30, 111–112

Hawaii National Park, 86, 89, 113–114, 128, 152, 155, 168, 173

Hawaii tidal wave (1946), 156

Hawaii, University of, 101

Hawaiian Is., 55, 69, 77–78, 112, 117, 164, 171, 177, 183

-- journey to, 55

Hawaiian Ridge, 49

Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association, 112

Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, v, 54, 75, 78, 84–103, 111–112, 114–130, 135, 137, 142, 151–156, 162–164, 168, 173

Hawaiian Volcano Research Association, v, 71, 78, 91, 103, 111, 113–114, 155, 171

Hawaiian volcanoes, 42, 85–113, 145–147, 151–176

Hayden, F. V., 7, 17

Haystack Basin, 39

Heidelberg, 12

Heilprin, A., 76

Henderson, John Brooks, 127, 162

Hermann, A., 5

Herschel, Arthur, 83

Hiatt, R. W., 171

High Plateaus of Utah, 67

Hill, R. T., 56

Hilo, 130, 143, 151–153, 155, 161, 162, 169

-- merchants of, 89

Hilo Tribune Herald, 162–163

Hilo Wharf, 123

Himalayas, 48, 116

Hind, Mrs. Robert, 145

Hinkley, Vern, 162

Hitchcock, C. H., 91, 164–166

Hobart, A. H., 128

Hodges, Richmond, 154

Hokkaido, 77

Holmes, Justice Oliver Wendell, 182

Honduras, 80

Honjo district, 133

Honolulu, 77, 78, 85, 91

Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 162

Honshu, 107

Honukai, the, 142–143

Hookena, 174

Hoopuloa village, 125

Hosmer, Ralph, 78

hot springs, 9, 39, 42, 137

Houston, David F., 112

Hovey, E. O., 56, 59, 76, 112, 159, 173

Howe, Ernest, 17

Howland Island, 135–136

Hoyle, Fred, xii, 5, 184, 186

Hualalai Volcano, 145, 146, 154, 164–165, 167

Hubble, E. P., 5

Hudson River, 42, 43

Humuula, 151, 153

Hunt, Walter Frederick, 173

Huntington, Ellsworth, 17

Huntington, Oliver, 5

Hyatt, A., 19

ice ages, 43, 185

Iceland, 39, 103

Imperial Hotel, Japan, 133

Indian Ocean, 170

index of eruption, 77

index volcanoes, 75, 79, 80

industrial diamonds, 172

Ingalls, Albert, 126

Ingerson, Earl, 172

injections, lava, 46–48

International Geophysical Union, 183

intrusions, 53

inventions, 19–20, 125–132, 157–158, 160, 162, 172

Irazu Volcano, 79

Ireland, 12, 23

-- Geological Survey of, 12

Irving, John Duer, 21, 25

Ischia, 66

isostasy, 116–117, 131, 177

Italy, 55, 65–72, 78, 103, 110, 117, 127, 181, 183

Ivanpah, 27

Izalco Volcano, 80

Jack, R. L., 110

Jackson, R. T., 5, 19, 165

Jaggar, Isabel, v, 100, 101, 109, 111, 118, 119, 121, 122, 140, 142, 145, 147, 153, 156, 157, 175

Jaggar, Rev. Thomas Augustus, 3

Jaggar inventions, 19–20, 158, 160, 172

Jamaica, 83–84, 157, 160

Japan, 42, 45, 55, 65–68, 77–78, 81, 84, 102, 103–106, 109, 110, 117, 132–134, 169, 183

Japanese earthquakes, 103–106, 114, 132–134, 168

Japanese engineers, 131

Java, 11

Jeans, J. H., 5, 184–185

jeep, forerunner of, 131–132, 138

Jim, Samuel, 62

Jimenez, President of Costa Rica, 79–80

Johanssen, Captain, 138, 140

Johnson, Douglas, 18

Johnston, F., 25

Jones, Austin E., 142, 144, 152, 169

Jordalsknut, the, 12

Jupiter, 184

Kagoshima, 103–106

Kahuku, 174

Kahului, 169

Kailua, Hawaii, 143

Kaimon, 108

Kaiser Wilhelm, 13–14

Kamakura, 134

Kamchatka arc, 82

Kamuela, 146

Kansas, 40

Kapoho, 118, 125, 154, 164

-- earthquake (1924), 154, 165

Karuizawa, 107–108

Katmai, 140

Kau Desert, 93, 115, 117, 120, 124, 125, 130, 132, 155

Kaunakakai, 123

Kawaihae, 143

Keewatin, 6

Kellar, H., 5

Kellers, H., 147, 149

Kelvin, W. T., 6

Keoua’s army, 120

Keppel Island, 150

Keppler, C. H. J., 147

Kew Observatory, 157

Kiholo, 143

Kilauea, v, xi, 59, 62, 68, 71, 76, 77, 86–103, 111–115, 117–125, 127–128, 130–132, 142–147, 151–155, 162, 164, 165, 167, 172, 176, 177

Kilauea Iki, 124

Kilauea Military Camp, 97, 113

Kilauea Mountain, 99, 118, 121

King, Clara, 62–64

King, Clarence, xi, 6, 7, 8, 17, 21, 22, 25, 32

King, F. P., 11

King, Samuel W., 135

King Cove, 138, 139, 140, 144

Kingston, Jamaica, 83–84, 159, 160

Kirishima, 108

Kobandai, 106–108

Kodiak, 137, 138, 140, 143, 144

Kohala, 165

Kona, 92, 93, 125, 142, 145–146, 152–154, 169, 173–174

-- North, 145

-- South, 92, 93, 125, 173

Korovinski Volcano, 75

Koto, B., 106

kou trees, 136

Kullenberg, B., 170, 184

Kumamoto, 109

Kyushu, 103, 108, 109

laboratories, 17, 32–54, 76, 78

-- Carnegie Institution geophysical, 76, 86, 111

-- Harvard, 32–54

-- Hawaii Volcano Observatory, 78

-- Naples, 76

-- Rockefeller, 29

Labrador, 3

Lacroix, Alfred, 16, 76, 134

La Forge, Laurence, 17

Lahaina, 123

Lake Superior, 6

Lake Taupo, 110

Lake Toya, 106

Lamar River, 36

Lancaster, Alex, 86, 90, 97, 118

Lane A., 18

Laramie, 46

Lassen National Park, 112, 114, 136–137, 154

-- survey of, 137

Lassen Peak, 136

lava injection model, 46–48

lava tides, 166–167

lava, analyses of, 129

lava, constituents of, 166

lava, moon, 172

Laudat, 11

Lehigh, 22

Leipzig, 181

Lenox-Conyingham, Gerald, 156, 157

Lewis Lake, 36

Lewis River, 36

Limon, 79

Lincoln, Gatesford, 132, 147

Lincoln, Joseph, 174

Lingula, 6, 7

Lipari, 66

Lisbon, 103

London, 12

Long Island Sound, 43

Los Angeles, 103

Loucks, Burton, 168, 173

Lower Silurian, 7

Lurline (ship), 175

Lycurgus, Demosthenes, 89, 111

Lycurgus, George, 111

Lydia (ship), 72, 74

Lyell, Charles, xii, 45

Lynn, 3

Lyttleton, ...., xii, 184, 185

Maclaurin, R., 55, 85

Macdonald, Gordon A., 111, 154, 166, 173–175

MacDonald, T. M., 59, 61, 159

MacGregor, A. G., 157, 161

MacMillan-Brown, J., 110

Madison limestone, 8

Maine, 3

Makalawena, 143

Makaopuhi, 118, 121

Makushin, 75

malau bird, 148–149

Mammoth Hot Springs, 9, 12, 42

man-of-war bird, 135

Mansfield, G. R., 18

Maoris, 110

Marlowe, Julia, 5

Marsden, Ernest, 110

Marsters, V. F., 17, 53

Martinique, 11, 55–66, 71, 76, 84, 129, 134, 156, 158, 160, 161, 167

-- expedition to, 55–65, 156–161

-- museum and observatory, 71

Marvin, Charles F., 111, 112, 137

Massachusetts, 18, 44, 71

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 7, 55–56, 72, 77–79, 85, 90, 91, 113, 129

-- teaching at, 55–56, 72, 78

Mato Tepee, 23

Matson, a guide, 11

Matsumoto, Jack, 174–175

Matteucci, R. V., 15, 67, 71

Matthes, Francois, 18

Maui, 122–123, 169, 170

Mauna Kea (ship), 123

Mauna Kea, 115, 146, 153, 164–165

Mauna Loa, 59, 62, 64, 67–69, 92–95, 99, 102, 112–115, 125, 145–146, 151–154, 162, 164–166, 169–170, 172, 173–176, 180, 185

-- bombing of, 153–154, 161

-- eruption of, 124, 173–176

Mauna Loa Mountain, 99

McCord, Jack, 140, 141

McKinley, C. P., 143

measurements, 129–131

medaños, 34

Mediterranean Sea, 45, 70, 116

“Mediterranean Sea” of North America, 22, 53

Mees, C. E. K., 91

Meinzer, O., 111

Mendenhall, W. C., 18, 112, 138

Mercalli, G., 76, 131

Messina, 55, 71, 77, 81, 103

-- earthquake of, 1908, 55, 71

metamorphism, 180

Meunier, Stanilas, 16

Mexico, 80, 82, 108

Michel-Lévy, A., 16, 53

Michelson, A. A., 99

microsclerometer, 19–20, 172

Midway Island, 99, 103, 164, 165

Mihara Volcano, 133–134

Mineral, Calif., 136, 137

Miocene, 46, 49

Mississippi delta, 41

Mississippi River, 8, 10, 36

models, 30, 38, 41–42, 43, 46–48, 50–52

-- erosion, 43

-- folding, 50–52

-- Grand Canyon, 30, 38

-- lava injection, 46–48

-- Old Faithful, 41–42

Mohokea, 165

Molokai, 122–123

Molokai Channel, 122

Molokai volcano, 165

Monte Somma, 66

Montserrat, xii, 66, 71, 126, 129, 156–161

-- earthquake (1933), 71

Moody, William H., 55–57

Moody, William Vaughn, 20

moon, 182

moon craters, 93–94, 172, 176

moon lava, 172

Morgan, Lloyd, 186

Morozewicz, J., 16

Morss, Everett, 162

motorcar amphibians, 168

Mount Baker, 136

Mount Dana, 143

Mount Etna, 66, 68, 71, 77, 81, 103, 180

Mount Hibokhibok, 76

Mount Lamington, 76

Mount Makushin, 73

Mount Misery, 62, 66

Mount Monadnock, 40

Mount Pelée, 56–65, 76, 134, 158, 161, 167

Mount St. Elias, 31

Mount St. Helena, 137

Mount Shasta, 18, 137

Mount Washburn, 36

Mount Wrangell, 138

Munro, George, 135

murres, 141

museum, Kilauea Crater, 114–115

Museum of Comparative Zoology, 164

mutation, 186

Myers, D. B., 72, 74

Mystic River, 37

Nagasaki, 103, 109

Nahant, 3

Nakamura, D., 115

Naknek Lake, 140

Napau Crater, 118, 121

Napier earthquake, 45, 111

Naples, 65, 71, 76

National Geographic Society, 55–56, 142, 143

-- expedition (Alaska), 143

Natural History magazine, 170

Nature magazine, 161

Naughton, J. J., 173

Naumann, E., 109

Navaho (ship), 123

Neckar, the, 14

Nelson, Sven, 20

Neptune, 184

Nevada, 26–30

New Crater, 10

New England, 7, 28, 37, 40, 43, 44, 46

New Haven, 46

New Jersey, 43

New Orleans, 79

New York, 42, 43, 56, 72, 121

-- New York City, 42, 72

-- Wall Street, 72

New Zealand, 39, 75, 103, 109–111, 114, 117, 126, 161, 162, 183

-- expedition to, 103, 109–111

--Geological Survey, 110

New Zealand-Tonga volcanic chain, 114

New Zealand, University of, 110

Ngauruhoe Volcano, 110

Nicaragua, 80

Nicaragua-Salvador line, 80

Nikolski, 141

Niles, W., 72

Niuafoou, 110, 147–150

Niuatoputapu, 150

No Man’s Land, 132

Nobel Prize, 157

Norris Geyser Basin, 10

North Island, N. Z., 109

North Kona, 145

Norway, 12, 13

Nova Scotia, 3, 175

Oahu, 170

Oberhansley, F. R., 173

Oberwald, the, 14

Observatories, 76, 86, 114–130, 135–137, 142, 144, 155, 162, 163, 168, 173

-- Alaska, 136, 137, 142, 144

-- California, 136, 137

-- Hawaii, 76, 114–130, 135, 137, 142, 155, 162, 168, 173

-- Kew, 157

-- Vesuvius, 76, 86

Ocean Island, 99

oceanic volcanoes, 182

Oceanographic Institute of Sweden, 170

oceanographic sampling, 183

Ogasawara Islands, 109

Ohia Lodge, Hawaii, 174

Ohiki, the, 142–143

Okinawa, 103

Olaa, 154

Old Faithful, 10

-- model of, 41–42

“Old Faithful,” Hawaii, 86–87, 90

Oldham, R. D., 116

Oligocene, 24

Omori, F., 77, 84, 102, 104–106, 109, 112, 115, 131, 132, 162

Oregon, 82

Osaka, 134

Osann, A., 14, 15

Oshima, 103, 109, 133, 134

Osumi Strait, 104

Otago University, 110

Ottajano, 65, 66, 68

Pacific Commercial Advertiser, 77, 86

Pacific Commercial Company, 143

Pacific journey, 77–78

Pacific Ocean, 36, 53, 82, 170, 171

-- arc, 82

--deeps of, 53

Pacific oceanography, 170–171

Pacific Science Congresses, 112, 134

Pago Pago, 147

pahoehoe, 67, 97, 120, 124, 125, 129, 135, 148, 151, 153

Palache, C., 14, 15

Palisades, Hudson River, 42

Palmieri, P., 76

Panama, 80, 82, 83, 157

Panama Canal, 82, 157

Papua, 76

Parker Ranch, Hawaii, 143, 146

Pasadena, 111

Pasteur, Louis, 16, 161

Patagonia, 81

Pavlof, 139, 142–143

Pearl Harbor, 122, 123, 168, 169, 172

Pelée, 11, 45, 56–65, 67, 68, 78, 103, 104

-- eruption, 45, 56–65, 71

Pelican (ship), 123

Pennsylvania, 37, 53

Perkins, Commander, ...., 140

Perret, Frank Alvord, xi, 32, 68, 71, 84, 86–89, 92, 96, 101, 103, 156, 157, 160, 162, 167, 171, 173

Peru, 34

Pettersson, Hans, 170, 171, 184

Philadelphia, 53

Philippine Islands, 72, 76

Phoenix, Arizona, 25

Piggot, C. S., 184

Planck, M., 5

Pliocene, 43

Plug Ugly (ship), 139

Plymouth, W. I., 156

Poas Crater, 80

Pohoiki, 118

Polynesian rats, 136

Ponte, S. C., 68

Porteus, Stanley, 162

Postal Card Crack, 77, 127, 128

Potomac (ship), 56–58

Powell, C. F., 156, 157, 161

Powell, George, 143

Powell, J. W., 7, 17, 22

Powers, Howard, 142, 154, 169, 173

Powers, Sidney, 112

Pozzuoli, 66

pre-Cambrian, 47

Prescott, Arizona, 25

Pribilof Island, 144

Prince of Wales, 110

Princeton University, 5

Pritchett, H. S., 55, 72

Puako, 143

Puget Sound, 143, 144

Puna, 130, 154

Purington, C., 133

Puu Oo Ranch, 153

Puuwaawaa, 145, 146

quakeproof engineering, 132

Quartette Gold Mine, 27

Queen Charlotte, 150

Quensell boys, 149

range finders, 125–127

rats, Polynesian, 136

Red Beds, 8, 47

Redlands, 103

Reyer, H., 16

rhythmic periods, 166–167

Richmond plantation, W. I., 159

Richter, C. F., 183

Rieber, Frank, 162–164

ripplemarks, 3–4, 32–54

Roberts, Sumner, 100

Rockefeller, John D., 184

Rockefeller laboratory and observatory, 29

Rocky Mountains, 7, 10, 18, 23, 46, 47, 48

Romberg, Arnold, 101–102

Rome, 103

Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 17

Roraima (ship), 62, 160

Roseau, 11

Rosenbusch, H., 12–16

Rotorua, 109, 111

Royal Society of London, 72, 156

Ruapehu Volcano, 110

Rushforth, Paul, 171–172

Russell, I. C., 56

Rutherford, E., 110

Ryukyu Archipelago, 103, 106, 109

Ryukyu-Sakurajima line, 108

Saba, 157

Sagami Bay, 133–134

St. Helena, 103

St. Kitts, 62, 157

St. Lucia, 160

St. Martin, 157

St. Pierre, 55–65, 71, 160, 161

St. Vincent, 56–66, 68, 158–160

Sakurajima, xi, 71, 81, 103–106

-- earthquake (1914), 103–106

Salvador, 80

Samoa, 147, 150

San Andreas rift, 137

San Francisco earthquake (1906), xii, 45, 55, 134, 137

San Jose, Costa Rica, 79

San Sebastiano, destruction of, 69

Santa Ana, 80

Santa Maria peak, 81

Sarana Bay, 141

Saratoga Springs, 18

Sato, Sutejiro, 155, 166, 168

Saturn, 184

Saxony, 14

Scandinavia, 12–13, 182

Schneeberg granite, 14

Schrader, F., 18

Schweitzer, A., 161

Scientific American, 126

scratch tester, 172

sea level, 130

sea lions, 141

seals, 144

Searchlight, Nevada, 26–30

Seattle, 72, 138, 142

Secretary of the Interior, 155

Section of Volcanology created, 136

sedimentation, 32, 38, 76, 181

Seeley, George, 72, 74

seismic recorders, 125–126, 143, 144

Shaler, Nathaniel S., xi, 3, 5, 19, 28, 172

Shepard, F. P., 170

Shepherd, E. S., 86–89, 92, 112, 115, 166, 167, 184

Shimonoseki Strait, 109

Shipman, Herbert, 153

Shishaldin Volcano, 154

shock recorder, 126, 158, 160

Shumagin Islands, 143

Sierra Nevada, 28, 116, 136

Sinclair, Gregg M., 162, 170, 171

Sinton, Bill, 122, 147

Smith, George Otis, 112, 137

Smith Philip Sidney, 18, 21, 22

Smith, William, 21

Smithsonian Institution, 112

Snake River, 36

Snedeker, James, 168

Solfatara, Italy, 127

solfataras, 11–12, 62, 65, 68, 80, 108, 129, 156, 158, 160

Soufrière, 56–55, 72, 159

South Dakota, 21–25, 28, 37, 38, 46, 47, 55, 78

South Island, N. Z., 109

South Kona, 92, 93, 125, 173

Spalding, Walter, 95

Spearfish, Arizona, 23

Speight, R., 110

Spofford, Charles, 79, 84, 129

Springfield, Mass., 71

Spurr, J. E., 18, 172

Stalheim, 12

Stanford students, 26

Stanley, Henry M., 12

Starr (ship), 138, 140

State Street, 72

Stearns, Harold T., 111, 154, 165, 166

Stewart, Richard, 143

Stinking Water mine, 8

Stockholm, 13

Stokes, Mrs., 63

Stokes, Rita, 62–64

Stone, Ralph, 17, 37, 43

Stromboli, 68, 71

Stübel, A., 67, 76, 177, 181, 182

Suess, E., 116

sugar mills, 159

Sulphur Bank, 112, 115, 127–129, 173

Sunlight mine, 8

sunspots, 65, 68, 166

-- intervals of, 68

surveys, 7–12, 23–25, 30, 76, 137, 138, 142–143

-- Alaskan, 142–143

-- Black Hills, 23–25

-- Fortieth Parallel, 25

-- Hawaii Geological, 30, 76

-- Lassen National Park, 137

-- New Zealand Geological, 110

-- Yellowstone, 7–12

Suwanose Island, 108

Sweden, 13, 170

Sweeney, H. P., 72, 74

swelling and slumping, 131

swelling mountain, 129–131

Switzerland, 43

Tanager (ship), 150

Tanegashima, 106

Tarawera, 109

Tarawera Mountain, 110

Tarumai Volcano, 77–78

Taupo Belt, 109

Taupo District, 161

Taylor, Griffith, 112

teaching, 55–56, 72, 78

-- at Harvard, 55–56, 72

-- at Massachusetts Tech, 55–56, 72, 78

Technology Expedition, 72, 138

Technology Review, 74

Teddy, the dog, 123

temperature wells, 127–129

Teneriffe, 71

Tennessee, 37

terns, 135

Tertiary, 8–10, 15

Tetons, 36

theater, the, 5

Thomson, Allan, 109

Thomson, William, 109

Thorndike, Charles, 100

Thurston, Lorrin A., 77, 86, 89, 111, 122, 142, 153, 162

tidal system (volcanic), 70

tidal waves, 134, 156, 169–170

-- Hawaii (1946), 156, 169, 170

-- Japan (Tokyo), 134

tide gauge readings, 130

Tin Can Island, 110, 147–150

Tokyo, 81, 102, 103, 106, 109, 114, 132–134, 168

-- earthquakes, 103, 114, 132–134, 168

Tonga, 109, 110, 114, 181, 147–150

Tonga Deep, 109

Tonopah, 29

Tonto fault, 30

Triassic lavas, 47

Tridacna, 35, 135

Trinidad, 61

Trondhjem, 12, 13

Tufts College, 17

Tuscarora Deep, 109

Twigg-Smith, William, 112

Unita Mountains, 30

Umnak Island, 75, 138, 141

Unalga (ship), 140

Unalaska, 75, 137, 140, 141

Unimak, 154

Union Pacific, 25

United Fruit Company, 79

U. S. Army, 113, 169

U. S. Army Air Force, 153

U. S. Army Engineers, 82, 156

U. S. Biological Survey, 144

U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 130

U. S. Coast Guard, 135, 140, 144

U. S. Congress, 156, 162

U. S. Consulate (Japan), 132

U. S. Eclipse Expedition, 110, 147–150

U. S. Geological Survey, 17–18, 19, 21, 22, 50, 54–56, 64, 89–90, 111–114, 129–131, 136–138, 142, 154, 157, 169, 172–173

U. S. Marines, 132, 133, 168

U. S. Navy, 55–57, 122–123, 131, 132, 147, 168, 170

U. S. Naval Observatory, 110, 147–150

U. S. Weather Bureau, 111–114, 137

University Club, Boston, 85

University of California, Berkeley, 89, 137, 163

University of Hawaii, 101, 162, 164, 168, 170, 171

University of New Zealand, 110

Uranus, 184

Usu Volcano, 106

Utah, 18, 22, 67

Uwekahuna, 173

Valparaiso earthquake, 55

Vandyke, E. C., 72, 73

Vaughan, T. W., 112

Verhoogen, J., 180

Vermont, 7, 9, 53

Vesuvius, xi, 55, 65–72, 76, 88, 104, 115, 131, 167

-- eruptions, 65–72

-- expedition to, 65–72, 84

-- observatory, 76

Vesuvius-Stromboli-Etna system, 70

Virgin Islands, 157

volcanic explosions, 32, 45, 55–84, 120–125, 130–131, 173–176

Volcano Bay, 139–140

Volcano House, 77, 86, 111, 113, 155, 173

Volcano Letter, 154

volcano models, 45–47

Volcano Research Association, 85, 162, 163

volcanology predictions, 161–162

von Buch, Leopold, 131

von Tempski, Armine, 146

von Zittel, Karl A., 13

Vosges Mountains, 14

Wada, T., 107

Waesche, Hugh, 152, 154

Wailuku River, 153, 156

Waimanu, Hawaii, 165

Waimea, Hawaii, 143

Waiohinu, 165

Waipio, 165

Wairaki, 161

Walcott, Charles D., 19, 22, 30, 111, 112

Wall Street, 72

Wallibu River, 60

Ward, R., 19

Washington, D. C., 76, 86, 111, 137, 161, 162

-- Geophysical Laboratory, 76

Washington, H. S., 112

Watchung Ridge, 43

water theory, 115–117, 167

Weed, W. H., 11

Wellesley, 72

Wellington, N. Z., 109, 110

Wells Fargo and Co., 27

Wentworth, Chester K., 173

Werner, A. G., 16

West Indies, 11, 56–66, 78, 83–84, 156–161

-- disaster in, 55–65

-- volcanoes of, 156–161

Western Samoa, 147

Wheeler, G. M., 7

Whippoorwill (ship), 135–136

White, Harvey, 173

White Island, 75, 110

Whitney Foundation, 85, 89

Wiechert, E., 116

Williams, Howel, 137, 164

Williamson, H., 82–83

Willis, Bailey, xi, 21, 22, 50–51, 116

Wilson, R. M., 111, 129, 130, 137, 144, 154

Wingate, E. G., 145, 152, 155–156

Wolff, John Eliot, 5, 19

Wood, H. O., 89, 100, 111, 115

Wood-Anderson seismograph, 111

Wood-Jones, Frederick, 112

Wood Valley, 145, 165

World War I, 132

World War II, 141, 142, 168

Wylie, ...., 11

Wyoming, 43

Yakutat earthquake (1899), 30–31, 37, 45

Yale University, 17, 19, 22, 91, 100

Yatchmenoff, Peter, 139–140

Yeld, G., 65

yellow fever, 82

Yellowstone Lake, 36

Yellowstone National Park, xii, 7–12, 18, 23, 28, 36, 39, 42, 67, 78, 112, 117

Yellowstone River, 36

Yokohama, 132–134

Young, John Mason, 114

Yukon, 140

Zeitschrift für Vulkanologie, 76

Zirkel, Ferdinand, 14

Zurich, 12

Transcriber’s Notes:

1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been corrected silently.

2. Hyphenation has been rationalised. Inconsistent spelling (including accents) has been retained.