Part 32

Voice.--Mr. Conover (1926) says:

The call and appearance of this species are entirely different from that of the Hudsonian curlew. The latter gives a very short whistling call, which is roughly as follows: Whe-whe-whe-whe. The former, on the other hand, has a call very similar to one of the black-bellied plover and sounds something like wheeeu-whu. In appearance the bristle-thigh is tawnier above and has a very reddish-brown unbarred rump, which is a very good field mark.

DISTRIBUTION

Range.--Alaska and islands in the Pacific Ocean.

Breeding range.--Unknown, but considered probable in northern or northwestern Alaska.

The bristle-thighed curlew does not seem to be abundant and consequently has been under observation at comparatively few points. Specimens have been observed or taken in summer in Alaska at Kotzebue Sound, Hooper Bay, Kobuk River, Lopp Lagoon, and Mint River. One also was taken on St. George Island, of the Pribilof group, on May 26, 1917.

Winter range.--During the winter they are found north to the Hawaiian Islands (Lisiansky, Laysan, French Frigate Shoal, Bird Island, and Hawaii); east to Hawaii, Palmyra Island, Fanning Island, Christmas Island, Marquesas Islands, Society Islands (Tahiti), and the Paumotu Archipelago (Vincennes Island); south to the Low or Paumotu Archipelago (Vincennes Island), Cook Islands (Palmerston Island), and probably New Caledonia; west to probably New Caledonia, Phoenix Islands (Canton and Phoenix Island), Gilbert Islands, the Marshall Islands (Jaluit Island), and the Hawaiian Islands (Lisiansky Island).

Migration.--Early dates of arrival for bristle-thighed curlews in Alaska are: Fort Kenai, May 18, 1869; Nome River, May 23, 1905; and Cape Mountain, May 28, 1922.

They have been detected in the Kotzebue Sound region as late as August 26, 1885.

Family CHARADRIIDAE, Plovers

VANELLUS VANELLUS (Linnaeus)

LAPWING

Contributed by Francis Charles Robert Jourdain

HABITS

The status of this bird in North America is a remarkable one. Up to 1927, with the exception of Greenland, where according to Lehn Schiöler, it is an occasional visitor, it had only been recorded on about seven occasions from the American Continent. Excluding Alaska, all the other records are from the eastern seaboard, the Bahamas and Barbados. In December, 1927, large flocks, numbering thousands, according to one reporter, were recorded from a number of places along the east coast of Newfoundland, in the middle of the country and also on the west coast. Among the birds obtained was one sent from Bonavista, Newfoundland, by Canon A. G. Bagley on December 31, which still bore the ring with which it had been marked as a nestling in May, 1926, at Ullswater, Cumberland, England, by Dr. H. J. Moon.

Spring.--In the British Isles the migratory movements are rather complicated and irregular, but many birds which have wintered in the south and near the great estuaries and marshes begin to work their way back to their breeding places inland, and to the north of Scotland which is practically deserted by them during the winter months.

Courtship.--The lapwing is a highly gregarious species and even in the height of the breeding season, when territorial jealousy on the part of the males is apparent, several pairs are generally to be found nesting within a short distance of one another. The courtship habits have been closely studied by the late S. E. Brock in Scotland, and more recently by William Farren, R. H. Brown, and J. K. Stanford, so that there is plenty of material at hand.

Even in the autumn and early winter months when the weather is open, especially after frosts, a certain amount of sexual activity is evident. Some of the males show indications of territorial defense and fighting takes place intermittently. It is not till the winter is over and the males have returned to their breeding grounds, which is generally from late February to early March, that the nesting territory is definitely parceled out among the males. The areas may vary considerably in shape and size and are not always clearly defined, but each bird shows distinct signs of jealousy at any invasion on the part of a neighbor and aerial combats take place from time to time, though sometimes a male will desert the group of “scrapes” which marks his territorial center and adopt a new series. These “scrapes” form an important part in the ritual of courtship. On the appearance of a female the male utters a grating note while standing upright and moving wings and tail up and down rhythmically. He then drops to the ground and, as Brock describes it, “lying far forward on his breast, shuffles the body, and scrapes energetically with the feet, which may be seen in rapid motion. At short intervals the tail is spasmodically bent downwards, the action corresponding with energetic footwork.” He then rises jerking bits of stubble over his shoulder, and in this way a little group of hollows or “scrapes” is formed, one of which ultimately becomes the nest. Apparently the female makes choice from several sites originally selected by the male.

From time to time the male makes the spring flight which has been well described by Brock.

Rising from the ground the male executes a few labored flaps, moving the wings with exaggerated slowness, owllike; thence he quickens his pace and rising suddenly at an abrupt angle, commences the song, the greater part of which, however, is emitted as the bird falls again. During the utterance of the song is a pause occurring after the penultimate note, the performer throws himself sideways almost on his back, instantly recovering himself with a flurry of wings. The bird now scuds rapidly over the ground at a moderate height, making a pronounced humming sound with the motion of his sharply driven pinions, and occasionally tilting himself from side to side, much in the manner of a snipe when flushed.

The song is well rendered by Brock as whey-willuchooee-willuch-willuch- cooee. The first syllable long and hoarse, the second and third willuch uttered rapidly and staccato, then a pause, during which the partial somersault is executed, followed by the loud and musical final note. The Norfolk marshmen’s transliteration is also good, “Three bullocks a week, week after week.”

Sometimes two rival males will rise together in the air almost perpendicularly each trying to rise above the other.

At intervals the upper bird stoops suddenly to the lower, an attack usually avoided by an agile turn of the wing, but occasionally a distant and hollow clap is audible, indicating an exchange of blows apparently with the wing. On at length parting company both combatants break into full song flight, repeating it twice or thrice ere resettling in their respective stations.

These encounters seem as a rule not to be of a very serious character and the occasional fights between rivals carried on near the ground, in which one bird swoops repeatedly from one side or the other at its opponent, which in turn avoids the attack by little upward springs or swerving aside, seem to be of a more serious character. When a hen bird approaches, the male bird runs toward her and describes a half circle round her with stiff and constrained air. Then he makes for the nearest “scrape” and at once drops into it, working with furious energy and occasionally dropping bits of straw over his shoulder. At first the hen makes no response, but about a fortnight after the beginning of the courtship she approaches the spot where he is at work by indirect stages. The male then rises and steps forward, with his back to the hen, slowly lowering his bill to the ground and raising his tail perpendicularly, thus displaying his richly colored undertail coverts. The female now settles into the “scrape” and imitates the actions of the cock, but with less energy, the male meanwhile retaining his strange uptilted attitude and collecting nesting material which is jerked over his shoulder toward the “scrape.” When at length the hen leaves the “scrape” the male reenters and sometimes the hen also repeats the process. Coition takes place a few days before the eggs are laid and immediately afterwards the hen works in the “scrape” with far more energy than before, the male often taking his place in another scrape. Both birds go through the ceremony of throwing bits of nest material over the shoulder. No serious attempt is made on the part of other males to interfere with a paired hen, and she on her part seems to avoid any strange cock bird.

Nesting.--Although it is usual for several pairs to breed in company the actual nests are usually some distance apart, and nearly always on slightly raised ground. They may be found on plowed land or on pasture and occasionally moorland, and vary somewhat in size, some being merely muddy hollows with a few bits of straw and bent, while others, especially on grass lands, are fairly substantial edifices of dead vegetable matter collected round the nesting “scrape” originally made by the male.

Eggs.--Normally four, but on rare occasions five, have been recorded, and when a bird has been robbed twice, sets of three and even two or one egg may be found late in the season. When the birds have been much persecuted as many as 20 have been laid in one season by a single female. They are pyriform in shape and lie in the nest with the points touching one another. As a rule there is not much variation, the usual ground color being stone color or brownish olive with black spots and blotches chiefly towards the large end. Some eggs have the ground almost hidden by dense black markings, and there are types in which the spots are mainly replaced by short black lines. More remarkable varieties are those in which the ground color in bluish white or some shade of greenish olive, with scanty markings of black, and the rare erythristic type in which the ground color is pale brick red or deep red brown with rich red brown markings. This wonderful variation has been recorded from Friesland as well as many parts of the British Isles. The measurements of 100 eggs measured by the writer average 47 by 33.7 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure =58= by 32.5, 47.4 by =37.2=, =42.3= by 33 and 44.7 by =31.2= millimeters.

Young.--Incubation is performed by both sexes, but much the greater part by the hen, the male being on guard to give the alarm. Incubation begins with the third or fourth egg and the period is as a rule 24 or 25 days, but in some cases is said to extend to 27 or even 28 days. The adults are very bold and demonstrative when the eggs are chipping and will even strike sheep or dogs. The young remain in the nest until the down has been thoroughly dried and at first do not travel far afield, crouching when the parents give the alarm. They can swim readily and are led by the old birds from dry uplands toward water meadows. Directly the young are able to fly they assemble into flocks. Only one brood is reared during the season.

Plumages.--The plumages and molts are fully described in A Practical Handbook of British Birds, edited by H. F. Witherby (1920).