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CHAPTER X. Economic and Technical

Lichens · Annie Lorrain Smith — chapter 20 of 20 · ~35,824 words · public domain

ECONOMIC AND TECHNICAL

A. LICHENS AS FOOD.

a. FOOD FOR INSECTS, ETC. Some of the earlier botanists made careful observations on the important place occupied by lichens in nature as affording food to many small animals. In 1791 Jacques Brez wrote his Flore des Insectophyles, and in the list of food-plants he includes seven species of lichens. The “insects” that frequented these lichens were species of the genera Acarus (mites) and Phalena (moths). A few years later Persoon noted that lichens formed the main food supply of many insects, slugs, etc. Zukal, quoting from Otto Wilde (Die Pflanzen und Raupen Deutschlands, Berlin, 1860), gives a list of caterpillars that are known to feed on and destroy lichens.

A very considerable number of small creatures feed eagerly on lichens, and traces of their depredations are constantly to be seen in the empty fruit discs, and in the cortices eaten away in patches so as to expose the white medulla. It has been argued by Zukal that the great formation of acid substances in lichens is for shielding them against the attacks of animals; Zopf on the contrary insists that these substances afford the plants no real protection. He made a series of experiments with snails, feeding them with slices of potato smeared with pure lichen acids. Many snails ate the slices with great readiness even when covered with bitter acids such as cetraric, or with those which are poisonous for other animals such as rhizocarpic and pinastrinic. The only acid they refused was vulpinic, which is said to be poisonous for vertebrates. The crystals of the acids passed unchanged through the alimentary canal of the snails, and were found in masses in the excreta. They were undissolved, but, enclosed in slime, their sharp edges did no damage to the digestive tract.

Stahl however upholds Zukal’s theory of the protective function of lichen acids against the attacks of small animals. Some few snails, caterpillars, etc., that are omnivorous feeders consume most lichens with impunity, and the bitter taste seems to attract rather than repel them; but many others he contends are certainly prevented from eating lichens by the presence of the acids. He proved this by soaking portions of the thalli of certain bitter species for about twenty-four hours in a one per cent. soda solution, which was sufficiently strong to extract the acids. He found that these treated specimens were in most cases preferred to fresh portions that had been simply moistened with water.

Even the omnivorous snail, Helix hortensis, was several times observed to touch the fresh thallus and then creep away, while it ate continuously the soda-washed portion as soon as it came into contact with it. Calcium Oxalate, on the other hand, formed no protection; omnivorous feeders ate indifferently calcicolous lichens such as Aspicilia calcarea and Lecanora saxicola, whether treated with soda or not, but would only accept lichens with acid contents, such as Parmelia caperata, Evernia prunastri, etc., after they had been duly soaked.

Experiments were also made with wood-lice (Oniscus murarius), and with earwigs (Forficula auricularia), and the result was the same: they would only eat bitter lichens after the acids had been extracted by the soda method. Stahl therefore concludes that acids must be regarded as eminently adapted to protect lichens which otherwise, owing to their slowness of growth, would scarcely escape extinction.

The gelatinous Collemaceae, as also Nostoc, the alga with which these are associated, are unharmed by snails, etc., on account of their slippery consistency when moist, which prevents the creatures from getting a foothold on the thallus. These lichens however do not contain acids, and if, when dry, they are reduced to powder and then moistened, they are eagerly eaten both by snails and by wood-lice. Peltigera canina, on account of a disagreeable odour it acquires on being chewed, is avoided to a certain extent, but even so it is frequently found with much of the thallus eaten away.

Hue in his study of Antarctic lichens, comments on the abundance and perfect development of the lichens, especially the crustaceous species, which cover every inch of rock surface. He ascribes this to the absence of snails and insects which in other regions so seriously interfere with the normal and continuous growth of these plants.

Snails do not eat lichens when they are dry and hard, but on damp or dewy nights, and on rainy days, all kinds, both large and small, come out of their shells and devour the lichen thalli softened by moisture. Large slugs (Limax) have been seen devouring with great satisfaction Pertusaria faginea, a bitter crustaceous lichen. The same Limax species eats many different lichens, some of them containing very bitter substances. Zopf observed that Helix cingulata ate ten different lichens, containing as many different kinds of acid.

Other creatures such as mites, wood-lice, and the caterpillars of many butterflies live on lichens, though, with the exception of the caterpillars, they eat them only when moist. Very frequently the apothecial discs and the soredia are taken first as being evidently the choicest portions. All lichens are, however, not equally palatable. Bitter observed that the insect Psocus (Orthoptera) had a distinct preference for certain species, and restricted its attention to them probably because of their chemical constitution. He noted that in a large spreading thallus of Graphis elegans on holly, irregular bare spots appeared, due to the ravages of insects—probably Psocus. In other places, the thallus alone had been consumed, leaving the rather hard black fruits (lirellae) untouched. In time the thallus of Thelotrema lepadinum, also a crustaceous lichen, invaded the naked areas, and surrounded the Graphis lirellae. The new comer was not to the taste of the insects and was left untouched.

Petch says that lichens form the staple food of Termes monoceros, the black termite of Ceylon. These ants really prefer algae, but as the supply is limited they fall back on lichens, though they only consume those of a particular type, or at a particular stage of development. Those with a tough smooth cortex are avoided, preference being given to thalli with a loose powdery surface. At the feeding ground the ants congregate on the suitable lichens. With their mandibles they scrape off small fragments of the thallus which they form into balls, varying in size from 1·5 mm. to 2·5 mm. in diameter. The workers then convey these to the nests in their mandibles. It would seem that they carry about these balls of food, and allow the ants busy in the nest to nibble off portions. Lichen balls are not used by termites as fungi are, for “gardens.”

Other observations have been made by Paulson and Thompson in their study of Epping Forest lichens: “Mites of the family Oribatidae must be reckoned among the chief foes of these plants upon which they feed, seeming to have a special predilection for the ripe fruits. We have had excellent specimens of Physcia parietina spoiled by hidden mites of this family, which have eaten out the contents of the mature apothecia after the lichens have been gathered. One can sometimes see small flocks of the mites browsing upon the thallus of tree-dwelling lichens, like cattle in a meadow.” The Oribatidae, sometimes called beetle-mites, a family of Acarinae, are minute creatures familiar to microscopists. They live chiefly on or about mosses, but Michael is of opinion that a large number frequent these plants for the fungi and lichens which grow in and about the mosses. In Michael’s Monograph of British Oribatidae, four species are mentioned as true lichen-lovers, Leiosoma palmicinetum found on Peltigera canina and allied species; Cepteus ocellatus and Oribata parmeliae which live on Physciae, the latter exclusively on Physcia (Xanthoria) parietina; and Scutovertes maculatus which confines itself to lichens by the sea-shore. Another species, Notaspis lucorum, frequents maritime lichens, but it is also found on other substrata; while Tegeocranus labyrinthicus, though usually a lichen-eating species, lives either on mosses or on lichens on walls. Zopf reckoned twenty-nine species of lichens, mostly the larger foliose and fruticose kinds, that were eaten by mites. Lesdain in his observations on mite action notes that frequently the thallus round the base of the perithecia of Verrucaria sp. was eaten clean away, leaving the perithecia solitary and extremely difficult to determine.

J. A. Wheldon found the eggs of a species of mite, Tetranychus lapidus, attached to the fruits of Verrucaria calciseda, Lecidea immersa and L. Metzleri, calcicolous lichens of which the thallus not only burrows deep down into the limestone, but the fruits form in shallow excavated pits (Fig. 126). The eggs of this stone mite are found fairly frequently on exposed limestone rocks, bare of vegetation, except for a few crustaceous lichens. “There is usually a single egg, rarely two, in each pit apparently attached to the old lichen apothecium. The eggs are very attractive objects under a lens; they measure ·5 mm. in diameter, and are disc-like with a central circular depression from which numerous ridges radiate to the circumference, like the spokes of a wheel. When fresh, they have a white pearly lustre, becoming chalk-white when dry and old.” Wheldon’s observations were made in the Carnforth and Silverdale district of West Lancashire.

A minute organism, Hymenobolina parasitica, first described by Zukal and doubtfully grouped among the mycetozoa, feeds, in the plasmodium stage, on living lichens. The parasitic habit is unlike that of true mycetozoa. It has recently been recorded from Aberdeenshire.

b. INSECT MIMICRY OF LICHENS. Paulson and Thompson give instances of moth caterpillars, which not only feed on lichens, but which take on the coloration of the lichens they affect, either in the larval or in the perfect moth stage. “One of the most remarkable examples of this protective resemblance to lichens is that of the larva of the geometrid moth, Cleora lichenaria, which feeds upon foliose lichens growing upon tree-trunks and palings, and being of a green-grey hue, and possessed of two little humps on many of their body-segments, they so exactly resemble the lichens in colour and appearance as to be extremely difficult of detection.” Several instances are recorded of moths that resemble the lichens on which they settle: perfect examples of such similarity are exhibited at the Natural History Museum, South Kensington, where Teras literana, Moma orion, and other moths are shown at rest on lichen-covered bark from which they can hardly be distinguished.

Another curious instance of suggested mimicry is recorded by G.E. Stone. He spotted a number of bodies on the bark of some sickly elms in Massachusetts. They were about 1/8 of an inch in diameter “with a dark centre and a drab foliaceous margin.” They were principally lodged in the crevices of the bark and Stone collected them under the impression that they were the apothecia of a lichen most nearly resembling those of Physcia hypoleuca. Some of the bodies were even attached to the thallus of a species of Physcia; others were on the naked bark and had every appearance of lichen fruits. Only closer examination proved their insect nature, and they were identified as belonging to a species Gossypina Ulmi, an elm-leaf beetle common in Europe where it causes a disease of the tree. It had been imported into the United States and had attacked American elms.

It is stated by Tutt that the larvae of many of the Psychides (Lepidoptera) live on the lichens of trees and walls, such as Candelaria concolor, Xanthoria parietina, Physcia pulverulenta and Buellia canescens, and that their larvae pupate on their feeding grounds. Each species makes a “case” peculiar to itself, but those of the lower families are usually covered externally with grains of sand, scraps of lichens, etc. The “case” of Narcyria monilifera, for instance, is somewhat raised on a flat base and is obscured with particles of sand and yellow lichen, giving the whole a yellow appearance. That of Luffia lapidella is roughly conical and is held up at an angle of 30° to 45° when the larva moves. The “cases” of Bacotia sepium are always upright; they measure about 5·5 mm. in height and 2·75 mm. in width and present a hoary appearance from the minute particles of lichen with which they are covered, so that the structure is not unlike the podetium of a Cladonia.

c. FOOD FOR THE HIGHER ANIMALS. It has been affirmed, especially by Henneguy, that many lichens, if deprived of the bitter principle they contain, by soaking in water, or with the addition of sodium or potassium carbonate, might be used with advantage as fodder for animals. He cites as examples of such, Lobaria pulmonaria, Evernia prunastri, Ramalina fraxinea, R. farinacea, and R. fastigiata, all of which grow abundantly on trees, and owe their nutritive quality to the presence of lichenin, a carbohydrate allied to starch.

Cladonia rangiferina (Fig. 127), the well-known “reindeer moss,” is, however, the lichen of most economic importance, as food for reindeer, cattle, etc. It is a social plant and forms dense tufts and swards of slender, much branched, hollow stalks of a greenish-grey colour which may reach a height of twelve inches or even more; the stalks decay slowly at the base as they increase at the apex, so that very great length is never attained. In normal conditions they neither wither nor die, and growth continues indefinitely. It is comparatively rare in the northern or hilly regions of the British Isles, and is frequently confused with the somewhat smaller species Cl. sylvatica which is very common on our moorlands, a species which Zopf tells us reindeer absolutely refuse to eat.

The true reindeer moss is abundant in northern countries, more especially in forest regions and in valleys between the tundra hills which are more or less sheltered from the high winds; it is independent of the substratum and flourishes equally on barren sand and on wet turf; but grows especially well on soil devastated by fire. For long periods it may be covered with snow without injury and the reindeer are accustomed to dig down with horns and hoofs in order to reach their favourite food. Though always considered as peculiarly “reindeer” moss, deer, roebuck and other wild animals, such as Lemming rats, feed on it largely during the winter. In some northern districts it is collected and stored as fodder for domestic cattle; hot water is poured over it and it is then mixed with straw and sprinkled with a little salt. Johnson has reported that the richness of the milk yielded by the small cows of Northern Scandinavia is attributed by some to their feeding in great measure on the “reindeer moss.”

When Cladonia rangiferina is scarce, a few other lichens are made use of, Alectoria jubata, a brownish-black filamentous tree-lichen being one of the most frequent substitutes. Stereocaulon paschale, which grows in large dense tufts on the ground in mountainous regions, is also eaten by reindeer and other animals; and Iceland moss, Cetraria islandica, is stored up in large quantities by the Icelanders and used as fodder. Willemet reports it as good for horses, oxen, cows and pigs.

It is interesting to recall a discovery of prehistoric remains at the Abbey of Schussenried on the Lake of Constance and described by F. Keller: under successive beds of peat and crumbly tufa, there was found a layer, 3 feet thick, containing flints, horns of reindeer and bones of various animals, and, along with these, masses of reindeer moss; a sufficient proof of its antiquity as a fodder-plant.

d. FOOD FOR MAN. Lichens contain no true starch nor cellulose, but the lichenin present in the cell-walls of the hyphae has long been utilized as a food substance. It is peculiarly abundant in Cetraria islandica (Fig. 128), which grows in northern countries, covering great stretches of ground with its upright strap-shaped branching fronds of varying shades of brown. In more southern lands it is to be found on high hills or on upland moors, but in much smaller quantities. Commercial “Iceland moss” is supplied from Sweden, Norway or Iceland. In the last-named country the inhabitants harvest the lichen preferably from bare stony soil where there is no admixture of other vegetation. They revisit the locality at intervals of three years, the time required for the lichen to grow to a profitable size; and they select the wet season for the ingathering of the plants as they are more easily detached when they are wet. If the weather should be dry, they collect it during the night. When gathered it is cleansed from foreign matter and washed in water to remove as much as possible of the bitter principle. It is then dried and reduced to powder. When required, the powder is put to macerate in water for 24 hours, or it is soaked in a weak solution of soda or of carbonate of potassium, by which means the bitter cetraric acid is nearly all eliminated. When boiled it yields a jelly which forms the basis of various light and easily digested soups or of other delicacies prepared by boiling in milk, which have been proved to be valuable for dyspeptics or sufferers from chest diseases. The northern nations also make the powder into bread, porridge or gruel. Johnson states in his account of “Useful Plants” that considerable quantities of Iceland moss were formerly employed in the manufacture of sea biscuit, and that ship’s bread mixed with it was said to be less liable to the attacks of weevil than when made from wheat flour only.

An examination of the real food value of the mucilaginous extract from “Iceland moss” has been made by several workers. Church states that for one part of flesh formers, there are eight parts of heat-givers reckoned as starch. Brown isolated the two carbohydrates, lichenin and isolichenin. The former, a jelly which yields on hydrolysis a large quantity of a reducing sugar, dextrose, ferments with yeast and gives no phloroglucin reaction; it is unaffected by digestion and probably does not form glycogen. Iso-lichenin is much less abundant and resembles soluble starch, but on digestion yields only dextrins—no sugar. It may be concluded, judging from the chemical nature of the mucilage, from the resistance of its constituents to digestion and from the small amount present in the jelly, that its nutritive value is practically nil.

It has been stated that “reindeer moss” in times of food scarcity is powdered and mixed with “Iceland moss” and rye to make bread in North Finland. Johnson confirms this and cites the evidence of a Dr Clarke that: “to our surprise we found we might eat of it with as much ease as of the heart of a fine lettuce. It tasted like wheat-bran, but after swallowing it, there remained in the throat and upon the palate a gentle heat, or sense of burning, as if a small quantity of pepper had been mixed with the lichen.”

The Egyptians have used Evernia prunastri, more rarely E. furfuracea, in baking. In the eighteenth century fermentative agents such as yeast were unknown to them, and these lichens, which were imported from more northern lands, were soaked in water for two hours and the solution then mixed with the flour to give a much appreciated flavour to the unleavened bread.

In India a species of Parmelia (near to P. perlata) known in the Telegu language as “rathapu” or rock-flower has been used as a food, generally prepared as a curry, by the natives in the Bellary district (Madras Presidency), and is esteemed as a delicacy. It is also used medicinally. The collecting of rathapu is carried on during the hot weather in April and May, and forms a profitable business.

A note has been published by Calkins, on the authority of a correspondent in Japan, that large quantities of Endocarpon (Dermatocarpon) miniatum (Fig. 56) are collected in the mountains of that country for culinary purposes, and largely exported to China as an article of luxury. The local name is “iwataka,” meaning stone-mushroom. Properly prepared it resembles tripe. It is possibly the same lichen under a different name, Gyrophora esculenta, which is described by Manabu Miyoshi as of great food value in Japan where it is known as “iwatake.” It is a greyish-brown leathery “monophyllous” plant of somewhat circular outline and fairly large size, measuring 3 to 13 cm. across. Fertile specimens are rare, and are smaller than the sterile. It grows generally on the steep declivities of damp granitic rocks and is common in various districts of Japan, being especially abundant on such mountains as Kiso, Nikko, Kimano, etc. The face of the precipices is often thickly covered with the lichen growth. The inhabitants collect the plants in large quantities. They dry them and send them to the towns, where they are sold in all vegetable stores; some are even exported to other countries. These lichens are not bitter to the taste, nor are they irritating as are other species of the genus. They are on the contrary quite harmless and are much relished by the Japanese on account of their agreeable flavour, in spite of their being somewhat indigestible. Though only determined scientifically in recent times, this edible lichen has long been known, and the risks attending its collection have frequently been described in Old Chinese and Japanese writings.

Other species of Gyrophora including G. polyrhiza (Fig. 129) and Umbilicaria, black leathery lichens which grow on rocks in northern regions, have also been used as food. They are the “Tripe de Roche” or Rock Tripe of Arctic regions, a name given to the plants by Canadian fur-hunters. They have been eaten by travellers and others in desperate straits for food; but though to a certain extent nutritious, they are bitter and nauseous, and cause severe internal irritation if the bitter acids are not first extracted by boiling or soaking.

Of more historical interest is the desert lichen Lecanora esculenta, supposed to be the manna of the Israelites, and still called “bread from heaven.” Eversmann wrote an account of its occurrence and qualities, and fuller information was given by Berkeley: when mixed with meal to a third of its weight it is made into bread and eaten by the desert tribes. It grows abundantly in North Africa and in many parts of Western Asia, on the rocks or on soil. It is easily broken off and driven into heaps by the wind; and has been reported as covering the soil to a depth of 15 cm. to 20 cm. with irregular contorted lumps varying in size from a pea to a small nut (Fig. 130). Externally these are clear brown or whitish; the interior is white, and consists of branching interlaced hyphae, with masses of calcium oxalate crystals, averaging about 60 per cent. or more of the whole substance.

A still more exhaustive account is given by Visiani, who quotes the experience of a certain General Jussuf, who had tested its value in the Sahara as food for his soldiers. When bread was made from the lichen alone it was friable and without consistency; when mixed with a tenth portion of meal it was similar to the soldiers’ ordinary bread, and had something of the same taste. The General also gave it as fodder to the horses, some of them being nourished with the lichen and a mixture of barley for three weeks without showing any ill effects. It is also said that camels, gazelles and other quadrupeds eat it with advantage, though it is in any case a very defective food.

A remarkable deposit of the lichen occurred in recent times in Mesopotamia during a violent storm of hail. After the hail had melted, the ground was seen to be covered, and specimens were sent to Errera for examination. He identified it as Lecanora esculenta. In his opinion two kinds of manna are alluded to in the Bible: in one case (Exodus xvi.) it is the sweet gum exuded from the tamarisk that is described; the other kind (Numbers xi.), he thinks, plainly refers to the lichen. He considers that its nutritive value must be very low, and it can only be valued as food in times of famine.

B. LICHENS AS MEDICINE

a. ANCIENT REMEDIES. An interesting note has been published by Müller-Argau which seems to trace back the medicinal use of lichens to a very remote age. He tells us that Dr Schweinfurth, the distinguished traveller, who made a journey through the valley of the Nile in 1864, sent to him from Cairo a piece of lichen thallus found in a vase along with berries of Juniperus excelsa and of Sapindus, with some other undetermined seeds. The vase dated from the 18th Dynasty (1700 to 1600 B.C.), and the plants contained in it must thus have lain undisturbed over 3000 years. The broken pieces of the lichen thallus were fairly well preserved; they were extremely soft and yellowish-white and almost entirely decorticate, but on the under surfaces there remained a few black patches, which, on microscopical examination, enabled Müller to identify them as scraps of Evernia furfuracea. This lichen does not grow in Egypt, but it is still sold there along with Cetraria islandica and some other lichens as foreign drugs. Dr Schweinfurth considered his discovery important as proving the use of foreign remedies by the ancient Egyptians.

b. DOCTRINE OF “SIGNATURES.” In the fifteenth century A.D. there was in the study and treatment of disease a constant attempt to follow the guidance of nature. It was believed that Providence had scattered here and there on plants “signatures,” or resemblances more or less vague to parts of the human body, or to the diseases to which man is subject, thus indicating the appropriate specific.

Lichens among other plants in which any “signature” could be detected or imagined were therefore constantly prescribed: the long filaments of Usnea barbata were used to strengthen the hair; Lobaria pulmonaria, the true lung-wort, with its pitted reticulate surface (Fig. 72), was marked as a suitable remedy for lung troubles; Xanthoria parietina being a yellow lichen was supposed to cure jaundice, and Peltigera aphthosa, the thallus of which is dotted with small wart-like tubercles, was recommended for children who suffered from the “thrush” eruption.

The doctrine reached the height of absurdity in the extravagant value set on a lichen found growing on human skulls, “Muscus cranii humani” or “Muscus ex cranio humano.” There are a number of lichens that grow indifferently on a variety of substances, and not infrequently on bones lying in the open. This skull lichen, Parmelia saxatilis (Fig. 131) or some other, was supposed to be worth its weight in gold as a cure for epilepsy. Parkinson tells us in all confidence “it groweth upon the bare scalps of men and women that have lyen long ... in former times much accounted of because it is rare and hardly gotten, but in our own times much more set by, to make the ‘Unguentum Sympatheticum’ which cureth wounds without the local application of salves ... but as Crollius hath it, it should be taken from the sculls of those that have been hanged or executed for offences.” Ray says that the same gruesome plant “is celebrated by several authors as useful in haemorrhages and is said to be an ingredient of the famous ‘Unguentum Armarium,’ reported to have been invented by Paracelsus.” Another lost ointment!

c. CURE FOR HYDROPHOBIA. Still another lichen to which extraordinary virtue was ascribed, was the very common ground species Peltigera canina (Fig. 54), a preparation of which was used in the cure of rabies. Dillenius has published in full the prescription as “A certain Cure for the Bite of a Mad Dog” which was given to him by a very celebrated physician of that day, Dr Richard Mead, who had found it effective:

“Let the patient be blooded at the arm, nine or ten ounces. Take of the herb called in Latin Lichen cinereus terrestris, in English Ash-coloured ground liverwort, clean’d, dry’d and powder’d half an ounce. Of black pepper powder’d two drachms.

“Mix these well together and divide the Powder into four Doses, one of which must be taken every Morning, fasting, for four Mornings successively in half a Pint of Cow’s Milk warm. After these four Doses are taken, the Patient must go into the cold bath, or a cold Spring or River, every Morning fasting, for a Month. He must be dipt all over but not stay in (with his head above water) longer than half a minute, if the Water be very cold. After this he must go in three Times a Week for a Fortnight longer.”

Lightfoot, some forty years later, refers to this medicine as “the once celebrated ‘Pulvis antilyssus,’ much recommended by the great Dr Mead.” He adds that “it is much to be lamented that the success of this medicine has not always answered the expectation. There are instances where the application has not prevented the Hydrophobia, and it is very uncertain whether it has been at all instrumental in keeping off that disorder.” Belief in the efficacy of the powder died out before the end of the century but the echo of the famous remedy remains in the name Peltigera canina, the dog lichen.

d. POPULAR REMEDIES. Lichens with very few exceptions are non-poisonous plants. They owed their repute as curative herbs to the presence in the thallus of lichenin and of some bitter or astringent substances, which, in various ailments, proved of real service to the patient, though they have now been discarded in favour of more effective drugs. Some of them, on account of their bitter taste, were frequently used as tonics to replace quinine in attacks of fever. Several species of Pertusaria, such as the bitter P. amara (Fig. 132), and of Cladonia as well as Cetraria islandica (Fig. 128), were recommended in cases of intermittent fever; species of Usnea and others, as for instance Evernia furfuracea, were used as astringents in haemorrhages; others were given for coughs, Cladonia pyxidata (Fig. 69) being supposed to be specially valuable in whooping cough.

One of the most frequently prescribed lichens was the tree lung-wort (Lobaria pulmonaria) (Fig. 72). It was first included among medical plants by Dorstenius, a Professor at Marburg; he gives a good figure and supplies directions for its preparation as a cure for chest complaints. The doctrine of “signatures” influenced practitioners in its favour, but it contains lichenin which acts as an emollient. In England, it was taken up by the famous Dr Culpepper, who, however, believed in astrology even more than in signatures. He says: “it is of great use with many physicians to help the diseases of the lungs and for coughs, wheesings and shortness of breath which it cureth both in man and beast.” He adds that “Jupiter seems to own the herb.” A century later we find Dr John Hill, who was a physician as well as a naturalist, stating that the great tree lung-wort has been at all times famous in diseases of the breast and lungs, but by that time “it was not much used owing to change in fashions.”

The only lichen that has stood the test of time and experience as a real remedy is Cetraria islandica, and even the “Iceland moss” is now rarely prescribed. The first mention in literature of this famous plant occurs in Cordus as the Muscus with crisp leaves. Some years later it figures among the medicinal plants in Sibbald’s Chronicle of the Scottish Flora, and Ray wrote of it about the same time as being known for its curative and alimentary properties. It was Linnaeus, and later Scopoli, who gave it the important place it held so long in medicine. It has been used with advantage in many chronic affections as an emollient and tonic. Cramer in a lengthy dissertation gathered together the facts pertaining to its use as a food, a medicine and for dyeing, and he gives recipes he had himself prescribed with marked success in many different maladies. It has been said that if “Iceland moss” accomplished all the good it was alleged to do, it was indeed a “Divine gift to man.”

The physiological action of cetrarin (acid principle of the lichen) on living creatures has been studied by Kobert and his pupils. It has not any poisonous effect when injected into the blood, nor does it work any harm when taken into the stomach even of small animals, so that it may be safely given to the most delicate patients. Nearly always after small doses peristaltic movements in the intestines are induced which indicate that as a drug it might be of service in the case of enfeebled organs. In larger doses it may cause collapse in animals, but if administered as free cetraric acid it passes through the stomach unchanged to become slowly and completely dissolved in the intestine. The mucous membrane of the intestine of animals that had been treated with an overdose, was found to be richer in blood so that it seems as if cetrarin might be of service in chlorosis and in assisting digestion.

Cetrarin has also been proved to be a nerve excitant which might be used with advantage in mental maladies.

C. LICHENS AS POISONS

Though the acid substances of lichens are most of them extremely irritating when taken internally, very few lichens are poisonous. Keegan writing on this subject considers this quality of comparative innocuousness as a distinctive difference between fungi and lichens and he decides that it proves the latter to be higher organisms from a physiological point of view: “the colouring matters being true products of deassimilation, whereas those of fungi are decomposition or degradation waste products of the albuminoids akin to alkaloids.”

The two outstanding exceptions to this general statement are the two Alpine species Letharia vulpina and Cetraria pinastri. The former contains vulpinic acid in the cortical cells, the crystals of which are lemon-yellow in the mass. Cetraria pinastri produces pinastrinic acid in the hyphae of the medulla and the crystals are a beautiful orange or golden yellow.

These lichens, more especially Letharia vulpina, have been used by Northern peoples to poison wolves. Dead carcasses are stuffed with a mixture of lichen and powdered glass and exposed in the haunts of wolves in time of frost. Henneguy, who insists on the non-poisonous character of all lichens, asserts that the broken glass is the fatal ingredient in the mixture, but Kobert, who has proved the poisonous nature of vulpinic acid, says that the wounds caused by the glass render the internal organs extremely sensitive to the action of the lichen.

Kobert, Neubert and others have recorded the results of experiments on living animals with these poisons. They find that Letharia vulpina either powdered or in solution has an exciting effect on the mucous membrane. Elementary organisms treated with a solution of the lichen succumbed more quickly than in a solution of the acid as a salt. Kobert concluded that vulpinic acid is a poison of protoplasm.

He further tested the effect of the poison on both cold- and warm-blooded animals. Administered as a sodium salt, 4 mg. proved fatal to frogs. The effect on warm-blooded animals was similar. A sodium salt, whether swallowed or administered as subcutaneous or intravenous injections, was poisonous. Cats were the most sensitive—hedgehogs the least—of all the animals that were subjected to the experiments. Volkard’s synthetic preparation of vulpinic acid gave the same results as the solution directly extracted from the lichens.

D. LICHENS USED IN TANNING, BREWING AND DISTILLING

The astringent property in Cetraria islandica and in Lobaria pulmonaria has been made use of in tanning leather. The latter lichen grows commonly on oak and could hardly be gathered in sufficient quantity to be of commercial importance. Like many other lichens it develops very slowly. Lobaria pulmonaria has also been used to replace hops in the brewing of beer. Gmelin in his journey through Siberia visited a monastery at Ussolka where the monks employed it for this purpose. The beer tasted exactly like that made with hops, but was more intoxicating. The lichen in that country grew on pine-trees.

Lichens have in more modern times been used in the preparation of alcohol. The process of manufacture was discovered by Roy of Tonnerre, early in the nineteenth century, and was described by Léorier. It was further improved by Stenberg, a Professor of Chemistry in Stockholm. Roy had worked with Physcia ciliaris, Ramalina fraxinea, R. fastigiata, R. farinacea and Usnea florida, but Stenberg and distillers after his time made more use of Cladonia rangiferina (Fig. 127), Cetraria islandica (Fig. 128) and Alectoria jubata.

By treatment with weak sulphuric or nitric acid the lichenin of the thallus is transformed into glucose which on fermentation forms alcohol. Stenberg found that 68 per cent. of the weight in Cladonia rangiferina was a “sugar” from which a good brandy could be prepared: a kilogramme of the lichens furnished half a litre of alcohol. The Professor followed up his researches by establishing a distillery near Stockholm. His papers contain full instructions as to collecting and preparing the plants. Henneguy, writing in 1883, stated that the fabrication of alcohol from lichens was then a large and increasing industry in Sweden. The whole industry seems, however, to have fallen into disuse very soon: Wainio, quoting Hellbom, states that the various distilleries were already closed in 1884, because of the exhaustion of the lichen in the neighbourhood, and the impossibility of obtaining sufficient supplies of such slow-growing plants.

E. DYEING PROPERTIES OF LICHENS

a. LICHENS AS DYE-PLANTS. Knowledge as to the dyeing properties of lichens dates back to a remote antiquity. It has been generally accepted that lichen-colours are indicated by the prophet Ezekiel in his denunciation of Tyre: “blue and purple from the Isles of Elishah was that which covered thee.” Theophrastus describes certain plants as growing in Crete, and being used to dye wool, etc., and Pliny in his Phycos Thalassion is also understood as referring to the lichen Roccella, “with crisp leaves, used in Crete for dyeing garments.”

Information as to the dyeing properties of certain lichens is given in most of the books or papers dealing with these plants from the herbals onwards. Hoffmann devoted a large part of his Commentatio de vario Lichenum usu to the dye-lichens, and, illustrating his work, are a series of small rectangular coloured blocks representing samples of woollen cloth dyed with different lichens. There are seventy-seven of these samples with the colour names used by French dyers.

An important treatise on the subject translated into French was also contributed by Westring. He desired to draw attention to the tinctorial properties of lichens other than the Roccellae which do not grow in Sweden. The Swedes, he states, already used four to six lichens as dye-plants, but only for one colour. He demonstrated by his improved methods that other colours and of finer tint could be obtained. He describes the best methods both of extraction and of dyeing, and then follows with an account of the different lichens likely to be of service. The treatise was subsequently published at greater length in Swedish with twenty-four very fine coloured illustrations of the lichens used, and with sample blocks of the colours to be obtained.

b. THE ORCHIL LICHEN, ROCCELLA. The value of Roccella as a dye-plant had been lost sight of until it was accidentally rediscovered, early in the fourteenth century, by a Florentine merchant called Federigo. He introduced its use into Florence, and as he retained the industry in his own hands he made a large fortune, and founded the family of the Orcellarii, called later the Rucellarii or Rucellai, hence the botanical name, Roccella. The product was called orseille for which the English name is orchil or archil. Another origin suggested for orchil is the Spanish name of the plant, Orcigilia. There are a number of different species that vary in the amount of dye-product. Most of them grow on rocks by the sea-side in crowded bluish-grey or whitish tufts of strap-shaped or rounded stiff narrow fronds varying in length up to about six inches or more. The main supply of “weeds” came from the Levant until the fifteenth century when supplies were obtained from the Canaries (long considered to produce the best varieties), Cape Verd and the African coasts. The geographical distribution of the Roccellae is very wide: they grow on warm sea-coasts all over the globe, more particularly in Angola, the Cape, Mozambique, Madagascar, in Asia, in Australia, and in Chili and Peru.

Zopf has proved the existence of two different colouring substances among the Roccellas: in R. fuciformis (Fig. 57) and R. fucoides (both British species), in R. Montagnei and R. peruensis the acid present is erythrin; in R. tinctoria, R. portentosa and R. sinuensis it is lecanoric acid. In R. tinctoria (Fig. 133), according to Ronceray, the acid is located chiefly in the gonidial layer and the soredia but is absent from the cortex and centre. In R. portentosa it is abundant in the cortex and central layer, while scarcely to be detected in the gonidial layer, and it is wanting altogether in the soredia. In R. Montagnei it is chiefly found in the cortex and the gonidial layer, and is absent from the soredia and from the medulla.

c. PURPLE DYES: ORCHIL, CUDBEAR AND LITMUS. Orseille or orchil is formed not only from erythrin and lecanoric acid (orseillic acid), but also from erythrinic, gyrophoric, evernic and ramalic acids and may be obtained from any lichen containing these substances. By the action of ammonia the acids are split up into orcin and carbonic acid. In time, under the influence of ammonia and the oxygen of the air, orcin becomes orcein which is the colouring principle of orchil; the perfecting of the process may take a month. The dye is used for animal fibres such as wool and silk; it has no effect on cotton.

There are several different preparations on the market, chiefly obtained from France and Holland; orchil or orseille in the form of a solution, cudbear (persio of Germany) almost the same, but manufactured into a violet-reddish powder, and litmus (tournesol of France) which is prepared in a slightly different manner. At one time the lichen, broken into small pieces, was soaked in urine; a fermentation process was set up, then lime and potash with an admixture of alum were added. The mass of material when ready was pressed into cubes and dried in the air. Commercial litmus contains three substances, erythrolein, erythrolitmin and azolitmin; the last named, which is the true litmus, is a dark brown amorphous powder soluble in water, and forming a blue solution with alkalies.

An aqueous solution of litmus when exactly neutralized by an acid is violet coloured; it becomes red with the smallest trace of free acid, or blue with free alkali. Litmus paper is prepared by steeping specially prepared unsized paper in the dye solution. It is as a ready and sensitive indicator of acidity or alkalinity that litmus is of so much value. According to Zopf it is also used as a blueing agent in washing and as a colouring of wine. Litmus is chiefly manufactured in Holland. Still another substance somewhat differently prepared from the same lichens is sold as French purple, a more brilliant and durable colour than orchil.

d. OTHER ORCHIL LICHENS. Though species of Roccella rank first in importance as dye-plants, purple and blue colours are obtained, as indicated above, from other very different lichens. Lindsay extracted orchil from about twenty species. Those most in use in northern countries are on the whole less rich in colouring substances; they are: Umbilicaria pustulata, species of Gyrophora, Parmelia and Pertusaria, and above all Lecanora tartarea (Fig. 134). The last named, one of the hardiest and most abundant of rock- or soil-lichens, is chiefly used in Scotland and Sweden (hence the name “Swedish moss”) to furnish a red or crimson dye. In Scotland all dye-lichens are called “crottles,” but the term “cudbear” was given to Lecanora tartarea (either the lichen or the dye-product); it was acquired from a corrupt pronunciation of the Christian name of Dr Cuthbert Gordon, a chemist, who, according to Bohler, obtained a patent for his process of producing the dye, or who first employed it on a great scale in Glasgow. Johnson remarks that the colour yielded by cudbear, if well prepared, is a fine, clear, but not very bright purple. It is, he alleges, not permanent. Like other orchil substances it is without effect on cotton or linen.

e. PREPARATION OF ORCHIL. A general mode of treatment of dye-lichens recommended by Lauder Lindsay for home production of orchil, cudbear and litmus is as follows:

1. Careful washing, drying and cleansing to separate earthy and other impurities.

2. Pulverization into a coarse or fine pulp with water.

3. Repeated addition of ammoniacal liquor of a certain strength, obtainable from several sources (e.g. putrid urine, gas liquor, etc.).

4. Frequent stirring of the fermenting mass so as to ensure full exposure of every part thereof to the action of atmospheric oxygen.

5. Addition of alkalies in some cases (e.g. potash or soda), to heighten or modify colour; and of chalk, gypsum and other substances to impart consistence.

f. BROWN AND YELLOW DYES. The extracting of these colours from lichens is also a very old industry. Linnaeus found during his journey to Lappland, undertaken when he was quite a young man, that the women in the northern countries made use of a brown lichen for dyeing which is evidently Parmelia omphalodes (Fig. 135). He describes it as a “rich Lichenoides of a brown stercoraceous colour,” and he has stated that it grew in such abundance in the Island of Aland, that every stone was covered, especially near the sea. In the Plantae tinctoriae there is a record of six other lichens used for dyeing: Lichen Roccella, L. tartareus, L. saxatilis, L. juniperinus, L. parietinus and L. candelarius. The value of Lichen omphalodes was also emphasized by Lightfoot; the women of Scotland evidently appreciated its dyeing properties as much as other northern peoples.

A series of memoirs on the utility of lichens written by Willemet, Amoreux and Hoffmann, and jointly published at Lyons towards the end of the eighteenth century, represents the views as to the economic value of lichens held by scientific botanists of that time. All of them cite the various dye-species, and Hoffmann, as already stated, gives illustrations of colours that can be obtained. It has been once and again affirmed that Parmelia saxatilis yields a red colour, but Zopf denies this. It contains saxatillic acid which is colourless when extracted but on boiling gives a clear reddish-yellow to reddish-brown solution which dyes wool and silk directly without the aid of a mordant. Zopf observed the process of dyeing followed in South Tyrol: a layer of the lichen was placed in a cooking pot, above this a layer of the material to be dyed, then lichen and again the material until the pot was filled. It was covered with water and boiled three to four hours, resulting in a beautiful rust-brown and peculiarly fast dye.

Reddish- or rust-brown dye is also obtained from Haematomma ventosum and H. coccineum, a yellow-brown from Parmelia conspersa (salazinic acid), and other shades of brown from Parmelia perlata, P. physodes, Lobaria pulmonaria and Cetraria islandica.

Yellow lichens in general furnish yellow dyes, as for instance Xanthoria parietina which gives either brown or yellow according to treatment and Cetraria juniperina which forms a beautiful yellow colouring substance on boiling. Teloschistes flavicans and Letharia vulpina yield very similar yellow dyes, and from Lecanora parella (Fig. 39), Pertusaria melaleuca and Usnea barbata yellow colours have been obtained. Candelariella vitellina and Xanthoria lychnea both contain yellow colouring agents and have been employed by the Swedes for dyeing the candles used in religious ceremonies.

g. COLLECTING OF DYE-LICHENS. Lauder Lindsay made exhaustive studies of dye-lichens both in the field and in the laboratory, and recorded results he obtained from the micro-chemical examination of 540 different specimens. He sought to revive and encourage the use of their beautiful colour products among country people; he has given the following practical hints to collectors:

1. That crustaceous dwarf pale-coloured species growing on rocks, and especially on sea-coasts, are most likely to yield red and purple dyes similar to orchil, cudbear or litmus; while on the other hand the largest, most handsome foliaceous or fruticose species are least likely.

2. That the colour of the thallus is no indication of colorific power (in orchil lichens), inasmuch as the red or purple colouring substances are the result of chemical action on crystalline colorific “principles” previously devoid of colour.

3. That alterations in physical characters, chemical composition and consequently in dyeing properties are very liable to be produced by modification in the following external circumstances:

(i) Degree of moisture. (ii) Degree of heat. (iii) Degree of exposure to light and air. (iv) Climate. (v) Elevation above the sea. (vi) Habitat; nature of basis of support. (vii) Age. (viii) Seasons and atmospheric vicissitudes, etc.

August has been recommended as the best month for collecting dye-lichens: i.e. just after the season of greatest light and heat when the accumulation of acids will be at its maximum.

Some of the acids found useful in dyeing occur in the thalli of a large number of lichens, many of which are too scantily developed to be of any economic value. Thus salazinic acid which gives the effective yellow-brown dye in Parmelia conspersa was found by Zopf in 13 species and varieties. It has since been located by Lettau in 72 different lichens, many of them, however, with poorly developed or scanty thalli, so that no technical use can be made of them.

h. LICHEN COLOURS AND SPECTRUM CHARACTERS. In a comparative study of vegetable colouring substances, Sorby extracted yellow colouring matters from various plants distinguished by certain spectrum characters. He called them the “lichenoxanthine group” because, as he explains, “these xanthines occur in a more marked manner in lichens than in plants having true leaves and fronds.” Orange lichenoxanthine he found in Peltigera canina, Platysma glaucum, etc., when growing well exposed to the sun. Lichenoxanthine he obtained from the fungus Clavaria fusiformis; it was difficult to separate from orange lichenoxanthine. Yet another, which he terms yellow lichenoxanthine, he obtained most readily from Physcia (Xanthoria) parietina. The solutions of these substances vary according to Sorby in giving a slightly different kind of spectrum. He did not experiment on their dyeing properties.

F. LICHENS IN PERFUMERY

a. LICHENS AS PERFUMES. There are a few lichens that find a place in Gerard’s Herball and that are praised by him as being serviceable to man. Among others he writes of a “Moss that partakes of the bark of which it is engendered. It is to be used in compositions which serve for sweet perfumes and that take away wearisomeness.” At a much later date we find Amoreux recording the fact that Lichen (Evernia) prunastri, known as “Mousse de Chêne,” was used as a perfume plant.

Though lichens are not parasitic, the idea that they owed something of their quality to the substratum was firmly held by the old herbalists. It appears again and again in the descriptions of medicinal lichens, and still persists in this matter of perfumes. Hue states in some notes to a larger work, that French perfumers extract an excellent perfume from Evernia prunastri (Fig. 59) known as “Mousse des Chênes” (Oak moss), and it appears that the plants which grow on oak contain more perfume than those which live on other trees. The collectors often gather along with Evernia prunastri other species such as Ramalina calicaris and R. fraxinea, but these possess little if any scent. A still finer perfume is extracted from Lobaria pulmonaria called “moss from the base of the oaks,” but as it is a rarer lichen than Evernia it is less used. Most of the Stictaceae, to which family Lobaria belongs, have a somewhat disagreeable odour, but this one forms a remarkable exception, which can be tested by macerating the thallus and soaking it in spirit: it will then be found to exhale a pleasant and very persistent scent. These lichens are not, however, used alone; they are combined with other substances in the composition of much appreciated perfumes. The thallus possesses also the power of retaining scent and, for this reason, lichens frequently form an ingredient of potpourri.

b. LICHENS AS HAIR-POWDER. In the days of white-powdered hair, use was occasionally made of Ramalina calicaris which was ground down and substituted for the starch that was more commonly employed.

In older books on lichenology constant reference is made to a hair-powder called “Pulvis Cyprius” or “Cyprus powder” and very celebrated in the seventeenth century. It was believed to beautify and cleanse the hair by removing scurf, etc. Evernia prunastri was one of the chief ingredients of the powder, but it might be replaced by Physcia ciliaris or by Usnea. The virtue of the lichens lay in their capacity to absorb and retain perfume. The powder was for long manufactured at Montpellier and was a valuable monopoly. Its composition was kept secret, but Bauhin (J.) published an account of the ingredients and how to mix them. Under the title “Pulvis Cyprius Pretiosius” a more detailed recipe of the famous powder was given by Zwelser, a Palatine medical doctor. The lichen employed in his preparation, as in Bauhin’s, is Usnea, but that may include both Evernia and Physcia as they are all tree plants. He gives elaborate directions as to the cleaning of the lichen from all impurities—it is to be beaten with a stick, washed repeatedly with limpid and pure water, placed in a linen cloth and dried in the sun till it is completely bleached and deprived of all odour and taste.

When well dried it was placed in a basket in alternate layers with freshly gathered, entire flowers of roses and jasmine (or flowers of orange and citrus when possible). The whole was compressed by a heavy weight, and each day the flowers were renewed until the “Usnea” was thoroughly impregnated with a very fragrant odour. It was then reduced to a fine powder and ready for other ingredients. To each pound should be added:

1-1/2 oz. powdered root of white Iris.

1-1/2 oz. of Cyperus (a sedge).

1 scruple or half drachm of musk reduced to a pulp with fragrant spirit of roses.

1/2 drachm of ambergris dissolved in a scruple of genuine oil of roses, or oil of jasmine or oranges as may be preferred.

Zwelser adds:

“This most fragrant royal powder when sprinkled on the head invigorates by its remarkably pleasant odour; by its astringency and dryness it removes all impurities, and, since it operates with no viscosity nor sticks firmly either to skin or hair, it is easily removed from the hair of the head.”

G. SOME MINOR USES OF LICHENS

The possibility of extracting gum or mucilage from lichens was demonstrated by the Russian scientist, Professor Georgi, and later by Amoreux, the method employed being successive boiling of the plants. The larger foliose or fruticose forms were specially recommended.

At a later date, during the Napoleonic wars, the “ingenious Lord Dundonald,” of great fame as an inventor, published an account of the extraction process and of the application of the gum to calico-printing, staining and manufacture of paper, dressing and stiffening silks. Lord Dundonald’s aim was to replace the gum Senegal, then a monopoly of the French, who were in possession of the Settlement of Senegambia. He took out a patent for his invention, but whether the gum was successfully used is not recorded.

According to Henneguy, lichen mucilage, as a substitute for gum arabic, has been used at Lyons with advantage in the fabrication of dyed materials.

APPENDIX

POSTSCRIPT TO CHAPTER VII

In a remarkable paper on The Symbiosis of Lichens, Dr A. Henry Church has presented a new and striking view of the origin and development of lichens: he has sought to link them up with other classes of vegetation that, in the great transmigration, passed from sea to land. As we know from his Thalassiophyta and the subaerial transmigration, he holds that primeval algae of advanced form and structure were left exposed on dry land by the gradually receding waters, and those that successfully adapted themselves to the changed conditions formed the basis of the land flora. A certain number of the algae lost their surface tissues containing chlorophyll and they had perforce to secure from other organic sources the necessary carbohydrates: they adopted a heterotrophic existence as saprophytic or parasitic fungi. Fungi are a backward race (deteriorated according to Dr Church) as regards their soma, but in number, distribution and variety of spore-production, they are eminently successful plants.

Lichens are similarly regarded by Dr Church as derived from stranded contemporaneous types of marine algae—crustaceous, foliose and fruticose, that had also lost their chlorophyll, but by taking into association green algal units of a lower grade they established a vicarious photosynthesis. But, to quote his own words, “as the alga-lichen-fungus left the sea, so it remained: it might deteriorate, but it certainly never advanced, once the sea factors which produced it were eliminated, it simply stopped along these lines.”

And again: “Lichens thus present an interesting case of an algal race deteriorating along the lines of a heterotrophic existence, yet arrested, as it were, on the somatic down-grade, by the adoption of intrusive algal units of lower degree to subserve photosynthesis (much in the manner of the marine worm Convoluta). Thus arrested, they have been enabled to retain more definite expression of more deeply inherent factors of sea-weed habit and construction than any other race of fungi; though closely paralleled by such types as Xylaria (Ascomycete) and Clavaria (Basidiomycete), which have followed the full fungus progression as holosaprophytic on decaying plant residues.”

Dr Church’s theory is of vivid interest and might be convincing were there no possibility and no proof of advance within the symbiotic plant, but in numbers of crustaceous thalli, there is evident, by normal or abnormal development, the first advance to the formation of rudimentary squamules, a condition diagnosed as subsquamulose. “Deterioration” of the lichen plant—when it occurs owing to unfavourable conditions—is a reversion to the leprose early stage of the association; there is no evidence of reversion from fruticose or foliose to squamulose. A glance at the table of lichen phyla shows progression again and again from the crustaceous forms onwards. In such a phylum as Physciaceae (with colourless polarilocular spores) there is a clear example of a closely connected series; the different types of thallus—crustaceous, squamulose, foliose and fruticose—are all represented and form a natural sequence, being well delimited by the unusual form of the spore and by the presence of parietin in thallus or apothecium.

That there has been development seems absolutely certain, and that along the lines sketched in the chapter on phylogeny. Progress has been mainly in the thallus, but there has also been change and advance in the reproductive organs, more especially in the spores which in several families reach a size and septation unparalleled in fungi. That association with green algal cells stimulated the fungus to new development is the view taken of the lichen plant and emphasized in the present volume. But it seems more in accordance with the polyphyletic origin and recurring parallel development in the phyla that association began at the elementary crustaceous stage, and that the lichen soma was gradually evolved within what is after all a very limited and simple structure.

ADDENDUM

FOOTNOTE TO PAGE 404

E. M. Holmes has published recently an account of a substance which seems in some respects to answer to the description of manna (Exodus xvi.; Numbers xi.) more nearly than the generally accepted Lecanora esculenta. The information is quoted from Swann’s book: Fighting the slave-hunters in Central Africa. The author writes (p. 116): “I was shown a curious white substance similar to porridge. It was found early in the morning before the sun rose. On examination it was found to possess all the characteristics of the manna ... of the Israelites. In appearance it resembled coriander seed, was white in colour like hoar frost, sweet to the taste, melted in the sun and if kept over night was full of worms in the morning. It required to be baked if you intended to keep it for any length of time. It looked as if it was deposited on the ground in the night.” The writer has suggested that “the substance might be mushroom spawn as, on the spot where it melted tiny fungi sprung up the next night.” Swann’s statement has been confirmed by Dr Wareham, a medical missionary from the same district, who states, however, that it is of rare occurrence.

FOOTNOTES

E. Acton (1909) has described a primitive lichen Botrydina vulgaris, in which there is no fruiting stage, and in which the fungus seems to show affinity with a Hyphomycete.

Luyken 1809.

Hornschuch 1819.

Raab 1819.

Dillenius 1741, p. 200.

Wallroth 1825.

Agardh 1820.

See p. 27.

Schwendener 1867.

Fink 1913.

Lindsay 1876.

Nylander 1869.

Crombie 1891.

Nylander 1891.

Crombie 1874.

Crombie 1877.

Crombie 1885.

Fink 1913.

Elfving 1913.

Moreau 1918.

Peirce 1898.

French 1898.

Morison 1699.

Tournefort 1694 and 1700.

Dillenius 1741.

Krempelhuber 1867-1872.

Grete Herball 1526.

Ruel 1536.

Dorstenius 1540.

Camerarius 1586.

Tabernaemontanus 1590.

L’Obel 1576.

Dodoens 1583.

Gerard 1597.

Schwenckfeld 1600.

Colonna 1606.

Bauhin 1623, pp. 360-2.

Parkinson 1640.

How 1650.

Merrett 1666.

Plot 1686.

Morison 1699.

Ray 1670.

Ray 1686.

Ray 1690.

Petiver 1695.

Plukenet 1691-1696.

Malpighi 1686.

Porta 1688.

Tournefort 1694.

Tournefort 1700.

Rupp 1718.

Buxbaum 1721.

Vaillant 1727.

Dillenius 1724 and 1741.

Micheli 1729.

Dillenius 1719.

See Druce and Vines 1907.

Crombie 1880.

Haller 1742.

Linnaeus 1753.

Schneider 1897.

Hill 1751. Hill’s genus Collema is Nostoc, etc.

Hill 1760.

Watson 1759.

Scopoli 1760.

Adanson 1763.

Hudson 1762 and 1778.

Withering 1776.

Lightfoot 1777.

Dickson 1785.

Weber 1780.

Sibthorp 1794.

Relhan 1785 and 1820.

Smith 1790.

Hoffmann 1798.

Persoon 1794.

Buxbaum 1728.

Petiver 1712.

Sloane 1796 and 1807.

Swartz 1788 and 1791.

Desfontaines 1798-1800.

Georgi 1797.

Willomet, etc. 1787.

Acharius 1798.

Acharius 1803.

Acharius 1810.

Acharius 1814.

Hue 1908.

De Candolle 1805.

Flörke 1815-1819.

Davies 1813.

Forster 1816.

S. F. Gray 1821.

Carrington 1870.

See List of the Books, etc. by John Edward Gray, p. 3, 1872.

Hooker 1821.

Hooker 1831.

Greville 1823-1827.

Greville 1824.

Hooker 1833.

Taylor 1836.

Fries 1831.

Fée 1824.

Flörke 1828.

Wallroth 1829.

Delise 1822.

Chevalier 1824.

Wallroth 1825.

Meyer 1825.

Holle 1849.

Koerber 1839.

Michaux 1803.

Mühlenberg 1813.

Torrey 1819.

Halsey 1824.

Tuckerman 1839.

Fée 1824.

Martius 1833.

Montagne 1851.

Hooker 1841.

Schaerer 1850.

Eschweiler 1824.

Fée 1824.

De Notaris 1846.

Massalongo 1852.

Norman 1852.

Koerber 1855.

Mudd 1861.

Lindsay 1856.

Leighton 1851, etc.

See Hue 1899.

Nylander 1854 and 1855.

Tulasne 1852.

Lauder Lindsay 1859.

Itzigsohn 1854-1855.

Speerschneider 1853.

Sachs 1855.

Thwaites 1849.

Schwendener 1863-1868.

Leighton 1851.

Leighton 1854.

Leighton 1856.

Mudd 1865.

Th. Fries 1858.

Schwendener 1867.

Nylander 1874.

Crombie 1885.

Lett 1890.

Fünfstück 1898.

Zahlbruckner 1903-1907.

Ventenat 1794, p. 36.

Cassini 1817, p. 395.

Agardh 1820.

Scopoli 1760, p. 79.

Persoon 1794, p. 17.

Sprengel 1804, p. 325.

Wallroth 1825, I.

Wallroth 1825, I., p. 303.

Fries 1831, pp. lvi and lvii.

Kützing 1843.

Thwaites 1849, pp. 219 and 241.

Flotow 1850.

Sachs 1855.

Itzigsohn 1855.

Itzigsohn 1854.

Hicks 1860 and 1861.

Speerschneider 1853.

Famintzin and Baranetzky 1867.

Baranetzky 1869.

Itzigsohn 1867.

Bayrhoffer 1851.

Tulasne 1852.

Speerschneider 1854.

de Bary 1866, p. 242.

Schwendener 1860, p. 125.

de Bary 1866, p. 291.

Nylander 1870.

Elfving 1903 and 1913.

See p. 133.

Minks 1878 and 1879.

Müller 1878 and 1884.

Zukal 1884.

Darbishire 1895¹.

Schwendener 1860, etc.

Schwendener 1867.

Schwendener 1868, p. 195.

Schwendener 1869.

Rees 1871.

Bornet 1872.

The authors quoted have been followed in their designation of the various green algae that form lichen gonidia. It is however now recognized (Wille 1913) that either Protococcus viridis Ag., Chlorella or other Protococcaceae may form the universal green coating on trees, etc., and be incorporated as lichen gonidia. Pleurococcus vulgaris Naeg. and Pleurococcus Naegeli Chod. are synonyms of Protococcus viridis. In that alga there is no pyrenoid, and no zoospores are formed.

The genus Cystococcus, according to Chodat (1913), is characterized by the presence of a pyrenoid and by reproduction with zoospores and is identical with Pleurococcus vulgaris Menegh. (non Naeg.), though Wille regards Meneghini’s species as of mixed content. Paulson and Hastings (1920) now find that Chodat’s pyrenoid is the nucleus of the cell.

Woronin 1872.

Archer 1873, 1874, 1875.

Bornet 1873 and 1874.

Treub 1873.

Borzi 1875.

Stahl 1877.

Bonnier 1886 and 1889.

Bonnier was probably experimenting with an Arthopyrenia. Verrucaria species combine with Protococcus or according to Chodat with Coccobotrys gen. nov.

Nylander 1858.

Fuisting 1868, p. 674.

Winter 1876, p. 264.

Stahl 1877.

See p. 62.

Wainio 1890, 2, p. 29.

Reinke 1872, p. 108.

Reinke 1873¹.

Reinke 1873², p. 98.

Frank 1876.

de Bary 1879.

Bornet 1873.

Hedlund 1892.

Peirce 1899.

Hue 1915.

Lindau 1895¹.

Peirce 1899.

Claassen 1914.

Frank 1876.

Lindau 1895.

Bachmann 1913.

Cunningham 1879.

Ward 1884.

Jennings 1895.

Fitting 1910.

Bornet 1873.

Bonnier 1889².

Schwendener 1867.

Elenkin 1902¹ and 1904¹, 1904².

Elenkin 1906².

Danilov 1910.

Paulson and Hastings 1920.

Nienburg 1917.

Zukal 1891.

Sutherland 1915.

Beyerinck 1890.

Artari 1902.

See p. 56.

Artari 1902.

Treboux 1912.

Chodat 1913.

See Paulson and Hastings 1920.

Keeble 1910.

Reinke 1872.

Dufrenoy 1918.

Artari 1899.

Etard and Bouilhac 1898.

Radais 1900.

Artari 1901.

Chodat 1913.

Treboux 1905.

Marshall Ward 1884.

Uhlir 1915.

Tobler 1911.

Zopf 1907.

Chambers 1912.

Chodat 1913.

See note Paulson and Hastings, p. 28.

Chodat 1913.

Gargeaune 1911.

Servettaz 1913.

See p. 65.

Wettstein 1915.

Meyer 1825.

Holle 1849.

Tulasne 1852.

Bonnier 1889².

Term coined by Lindau (1899) to describe the pseudo-cellular tissue of lichens and fungi now referred to as “plectenchyma.”

Wainio 1897.

Möller 1887.

Tobler 1909.

Wahrlich 1893.

Baur 1898.

Darbishire 1899.

Kienitz-Gerloff 1902.

Meyer 1902.

Salter 1902.

Nylander (1866) gave the term “gonimia” to the blue-green algae of the Phycolichens, retaining the term “gonidia” for the bright-green algae of the Archilichens: the distinction is not now maintained.

For further details see also the chapter on Classification.

See p. 133.

Krempelhuber 1873.

Chodat 1913.

Paulson and Hastings 1920.

Paulson in litt.

Acton 1909.

Bialosuknia 1909.

Hue 1905.

Deckenbach 1893.

In a comparative study of leaf algae from Ceylon and Barbadoes, N. Thomas (1913) came to the conclusion that Marshall Ward’s alga in its early stages is the same as Phyllactidium tropicum Moebius; and that the Barbadoes alga with which she was working represented the older stages, it being then subcuticular in habit, forming rhizoids, barren and sterile aerial hairs and subcuticular zoosporangia.

De Toni 1889.

Bornet 1873.

Fünfstück 1899.

Hedlund 1892.

Zukal 1895, p. 19.

Moebius 1888.

Frank 1876, p. 158.

Stahl 1877.

Neubner 1893.

Krabbe 1891.

Forssell 1885.

Hue 1910.

Harmand 1913, p. 1050.

Forssell 1886.

See Chap. VII.

Lindau 1895.

Darbishire 1897.

Nienburg 1917.

Bonnier 1888 and 1889².

Bonnier 1889.

Forssell 1884, p. 34.

Zahlbruckner 1902.

Lindau 1899.

Reinke 1895.

Zukal 1895, p. 562.

Zahlbruckner 1907.

Hue 1899.

Wainio has adopted this term for growing hyphae 1897, p. 33.

Tulasne 1852.

Zukal 1895.

Schwendener 1866.

Schwendener 1863.

Hue 1906.

See p. 83.

Malinowski 1911.

Steiner 1881.

Fünfstück 1899.

Bachmann 1913.

See p. 215.

Friedrich 1906.

Bachmann 1907.

Bachmann 1904.

Stahlecker 1906.

Lang 1903.

Fünfstück 1899.

Darbishire 1897.

Frank 1876.

Bornet 1873, p. 81.

Lindau 1895.

Bitter 1899.

See p. 83.

Friedrich 1906.

See p. 76.

See p. 126.

Schwendener 1860, 1863 and 1868.

Zukal 1895, p. 1305.

Hue 1906.

Heber Howe 1912.

Hue 1911.

Schwendener 1863, p. 180.

Darbishire 1897.

Rosendahl 1907.

See p. 96.

See p. 133.

Rosendahl 1907.

Meyer 1902.

See p. 52.

Nylander 1858.

Hue 1898.

Rosendahl 1907.

Darbishire 1912.

Porter 1919.

Darbishire 1897.

Schwendener 1860.

Rosendahl 1907.

Meyer 1902.

Reinke 1895, p. 186.

Bitter 1901.

Sernander 1901.

Parfitt in Leighton 1871, p. 470.

Galløe 1915.

Bitter 1899.

Sturgis 1890.

See p. 108.

Darbishire 1898.

Darbishire 1895.

Brandt 1906.

Hue 1906.

Haberlandt 1896.

Schulte 1904.

See p. 120.

Lutz 1894.

Peirce 1898.

Zopf 1903.

Lindau 1895.

Brandt 1906.

Porter 1916.

Darbishire 1898.

Wainio 1880.

Krabbe 1891.

Wainio 1897.

Wainio 1880.

Krabbe 1891.

Baur 1904.

Wainio 1880.

Chodat 1913.

Wainio 1897.

Baur 1904.

Wainio 1897.

Lindsay 1859, p. 171.

Wainio 1897.

Wainio 1897, p. 9.

Wainio 1880.

Krabbe 1891.

Necker 1871.

Persoon 1794.

Acharius 1803.

Wallroth 1829, p. 61.

Tulasne 1852.

Koerber 1855.

Reinke 1894.

Sättler 1914.

Nienburg 1908.

See p. 183.

Wainio 1897.

Baur 1904.

Wolff 1905.

Aigret 1901.

Wainio 1897.

Wainio 1890, p. 67.

Reinke 1895.

Nylander 1858, p. 63.

Acharius 1810, p. 12.

Haller 1768, p. 85.

Schreber 1791, p. 768.

Meyer 1825, p. 148.

Delise 1822.

Nylander 1858, p. 14.

Nylander 1860, p. 333.

Schwendener 1863, p. 169.

Wainio 1890, I. p. 183.

Schwendener 1863, p. 169.

Stizenberger 1895.

Zukal 1895, p. 1355.

Wainio 1909.

Schwendener 1863, p. 169.

Jatta 1889, p. 48.

Zukal 1895, p. 1357.

Rosendahl 1907.

Zukal 1895.

Reinke 1895, p. 183.

Darbishire 1901.

Brandt 1906.

Bitter 1899.

Nylander 1874².

Bitter 1901².

Zukal 1895, p. 1348.

Acharius 1803.

Hue 1904 and 1910.

Flörke 1815, IV. p. 15.

Wallroth 1825, p. 678.

Th. M. Fries 1858.

Forssell 1884.

Leighton 1869.

Nylander 1878.

Schneider 1897.

Hue 1910.

Tuckerman 1875.

Schneider 1897, p. 58.

Nylander 1869.

Bornet 1873, p. 72.

Forssell 1885, p. 24.

Riddle 1910.

Babikoff 1878.

Th. M. Fries 1866.

Winter 1877.

Schneider 1897.

Etard and Bouilhac 1898.

Hue 1910.

Sernander 1907.

Bitter 1904.

Linkola 1913.

Acharius, 1798, p. xix, and 1810, pp. 8 and 10.

Malpighi, 1686, p. 50, pl. 27, fig. 106.

Micheli 1729, pp. 73, 74.

Linnaeus 1737, p. 325.

Hedwig 1798.

Sprengel 1807, Letter XXIII.

Wallroth 1825, I. p. 595.

Koerber 1841.

Schwendener 1860.

Meyer 1825, p. 170.

Krabbe 1891.

Bitter 1901.

Schwendener 1860, p. 137.

Wainio 1897, p. 32.

Reinke 1895, p. 380.

Bitter 1901.

Lesdain 1910.

Schwendener 1860.

Nilson 1903.

Darbishire 1897.

Bitter 1901, p. 191.

Krabbe 1891.

Darbishire 1907.

Tobler 1911², 11.

Bitter 1901².

Lindau 1895.

Nilson 1903.

Bitter 1904.

Acharius 1798, pp. 2, 87.

Fries 1825.

Hooker 1833.

Taylor 1836.

Rosendahl 1907.

Bitter 1899.

Nilson 1903.

Kajanus (Nilson) 1911.

Zopf 1903.

Zopf 1905².

Bitter 1899.

Swartz 1788.

Gmelin 1791.

Woodward 1797.

Fries 1825.

Nylander 1855.

Mattirolo 1881.

Johow 1884.

Wainio 1890.

Möller 1893.

Malpighi 1686.

Tournefort 1694.

Morison 1699.

Micheli 1729.

Micheli, Pls. 52 and 56.

Dillenius 1741.

Linnaeus 1737.

Necker 1771, p. 257.

Scopoli 1772.

Koelreuter 1777.

Hoffmann 1784.

Hedwig 1784.

Acharius 1810.

Hornschuch 1821.

Wallroth 1825.

Meyer 1825.

Sprengel 1804.

Luyken 1809.

Persoon 1801.

See also p. 267.

Paulson and Thompson 1913.

Stone 1896.

Tutt 1900, p. 107.

Zopf 1907, p. 372.

Kihlman 1890.

Linnaeus 1762.

Johnson 1861.

Lindsay 1856.

Willemet 1787.

Keller 1866.

Proust 1906.

Johnson 1861.

Church 1880.

Brown 1898.

Hutchinson 1916.

Forskål 1875, p. 193.

Watt 1890.

Calkins 1892.

Miyoshi 1893.

See p. 422.

Eversmann 1825.

Berkeley 1849.

Visiani 1867.

Errera 1893.

Müller-Argau 1881, p. 526.

See p. 138.

From an examination of old figures of the Muscus cranii, Arnold (1892, p. 53) has decided that several kinds of lichens or hepatics are included in this designation.

Parkinson 1640, p. 1313.

Ray 1686, p. 117.

Amoreux 1787, p. 46.

Dillenius 1741, p. 202.

Lightfoot 1777, II. p. 846.

Dorstenius 1540.

Culpepper 1652.

Hill 1751.

Cordus 1561.

Sibbald 1684.

Ray 1686.

Linnaeus 1737.

Scopoli 1760.

Cramer 1880.

Kobert 1895.

Keegan 1905.

Henneguy 1883.

Kobert 1895.

Neubert 1893.

See p. 228.

Gmelin 1752, p. 425.

Léorier 1825.

Stenberg 1868.

Richard 1877.

Henneguy 1883.

Wainio 1887, p. 47.

Hellbom 1886, p. 72.

Hoffmann 1787.

Westring 1792 and 1793.

Westring 1805-1809.

Zopf 1907.

Ronceray 1904.

Zopf 1907.

Zahlbruckner (1905, p. 109) quotes from Czapek a statement that orchil fermentation is brought about by an obligate aerobic bacillus.

Zopf 1907, p. 393.

Lindsay 1855.

Bohler 1835, N. 10.

Johnson 1861.

Lindsay 1855.

Linnaeus 1711.

Linnaeus 1760.

Willemet etc. 1787.

Zopf 1907.

Lindsay 1855.

Lettau 1914.

Sorby 1873.

Gerard 1597.

Amoreux 1787.

Hue 1889.

Hue 1900.

Bauhin 1650, p. 88.

Zwelser 1672.

Georgi 1779.

Amoreux 1787.

Dundonald 1801.

Henneguy 1883.

See p. 302.

Journ. Bot. LVIII. pp. 213-9; 262-7, 1920.

Bot. Memoirs, 3, Oxford, 1919.

Church in litt.

Journ. Bot. l.c.

See p. 271 ante.

See p. 302 ante.

Chemist and Druggist, XCII. pp. 25-26, 1920; Bot. Abstracts, N. 903, p. 135, 1920.

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—— Inverness and Banff Cryptogams. Journ. Bot. XLVIII. pp. 123-129, 1910.

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—— The Lichens of Perthshire. Journ. Bot. LIII. Suppl. 73 pp., 1915.

=Wiesner, J.= Untersuchungen über den Lichtgenuss der Pflanzen, etc. Sitzungsb. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-Naturw. Cl. CIV. pp. 606-711, 1895.

—— Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreichs. I. pp. 668-671, 1900.

=Wille, N.= Algologische Notizen. XXII. Nyt. Magazin. Naturv. LI. I. pp. 1-26 (1 pl.), 1913.

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INDEX

Abrothallus De Not., 267 A. Cetrariae Kotte, 264 A. oxysporus Tul., 263 A. Peyritschii Kotte, 264 A. Smithii Tul., 263

Acanthothecium Wain., 322

Acarinae, 271, 397

Acarospora Massal., 183, 331, 390 A. chlorophana Massal., 374, 375, 390 A. glaucocarpa Koerb., 176 A. Heppii Koerb., 377 A. pruinosa (Sm.), 377 A. smaragdula Massal., 388, 393 A. xanthophana (Nyl.), 242

Acarosporaceae, 310, 331

Acarus, 395

Acharius, 1, 10, 123, 126, 133, 141, 149, 156, 185, 192, 304

Acolium, S. F. Gray, 277

Acrocordia gemmata Koerb., 152 (Fig. 90 B)

Acroscyphus, Lév., 320 A. sphaerophoroides Lév., 289

Actinoplaca Müll.-Arg., 327

Acton, xix, 57

Adanson, 9

Aesculus, 253

Agardh, C. A., xx, 21

Agyrium flavescens Rehm, 266

Aigret, 125, 371, 384

Alectoria Ach., 85, 94, 101, 103, 200, 257, 300, 340, 346, 350, 352 A. implexa Nyl., 227 A. jubata Ach., 3, 111, 401, 411 A. nigricans Nyl., 346, 389 A. ochroleuca Ach., 227, 389 A. thrausta Ach., 105 (Fig. 60)

Alectoriaceae, 339

Allarthonia Nyl., 321

Allarthothelium Wain., 321

Allescher, 201

Almquist, 262

Ambergris, 419

Amoreux, 10, 407, 415, 418, 420

Amphidium Nyl., 335

Amphiloma Koerb., 325

Anabæna Bory, 41

Anaptychia Koerb., 341 (see Physcia)

Anapyrenium Müll.-Arg., 315

Anema Nyl., 333, 373

Angiocarpeae, 156

Anthoceros L., 41

Anthracothecium Massal., 316, 350

Anzia Stiz., 90, 299, 339 A. colpodes Stiz., 90 A. japonica Müll.-Arg., 90

Archer, 28

Arctomia Th. Fr., 334

Argopsis Th. Fr., 105, 135, 297, 330

Arnold, 18, 261, 342, 343, 364, 368, 370, 407

Arnoldia minutula Born., 190 (Fig. 108)

Arnott, Walker, 15

Artari, 39, 42

Arthonia Ach., 158, 203, 278, 305, 321, 343, 361 A. astroidea Ach., 202 A. cinnabarina Wallr. (see A. gregaria), 349 A. dispersa Nyl., 365 A. gregaria Koerb., 247, 248 A. lecideella Nyl., 365 A. pruinosa Ach., 145 A. radiata Ach., 78, 365 A. subvarians Nyl., 262

Arthoniaceae, 59, 278, 309, 321

Arthoniopsis Müll.-Arg., 321

Arthopyrenia Massal., 30, 316 A. fallax Arn., 365 A. halizoa A. L. Sm., 383 A. halodytes Oliv., 383 A. leptotera A. L. Sm., 383 A. macrospora Fink, 365 A. marina A. L. Sm., 383 A. punctiformis Arn., 346, 365 A. quinqueseptata Fink, 365

Arthotheliopsis Wain., 327

Arthothelium Massal., 321

Ascolichens, 272, 273, 281, 308, 311

Ascomycetes xix, 178 et passim

Ascophanus carneus Boud., 180

Aspergillus Micheli, 220

Aspicilia Massal., 133, 136, 140 (see Lecanora) A. atroviolacea (Flot.) Hue, 158 A. flavida (Hepp), 248

Aspidoferae, 9

Aspidopyrenium Wain., 314

Aspidothelium Wain., 314

Asteristion Leight., 337

Asteroporum Müll.-Arg., 316

Asterothyrium Müll.-Arg., 327

Astrotheliaceae, 309, 317, 352

Astrothelium Trev., 317

Athalami, 305

Aulaxina Fée, 322

Azolla Laur., 41

Babikoff, 138

Babington, 18, 350

Bachmann, E., 35, 75, 76, 215, 216, 235, 247, 347, 393

Bachmann, Freda, 162, 179, 181, 186

Bacidia, De Not., 329 B. acclinis (Flot.), 248 B. Beckhausii Koerb., 262 B. flavovirescens Anzi, 280 B. fuscorubella Arn., 249, 365 B. inundata Koerb., 372, 373, 377, 391, 392 B. muscorum Mudd, 248, 368, 370, 377 B. rubella Massal., 365

Bacotia sepium, 399

Baeomyces Pers., 123, 293, 294, 330 B. paeminosus Krempelh., 55 B. placophyllus Ach., 293, 368 B. roseus Pers., 123, 167, 195, 218, 247, 362, 367, 368, 369 B. rufus, DC., 123, 167, 177, 218, 237, 240, 362, 368, 369

Baranetzky, 24

Bary, de, 24, 31, 187, 209, 213

Bauhin, J., 419

Bauhin, K., 3

Baur, 51, 115, 118, 124, 161, 165, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172, 173, 174, 176, 177, 180, 181, 185, 255

Beckmann, 230, 257

Beechey, 15

Beetle-mites, 397

Beijerinck, 39, 220

Beilstein, 211

Belonia Koerb., 316

Berg, 211

Berkeley, 252, 404

Berzelius, 210

Betula nana L., 95

Bialosuknia, 57

Biatora Koerb., 158, 279, 293 (see also Lecidea), 391

Biatorella Th. Fr., 331 B. cinerea Th. Fr., 375 B. pruinosa Mudd, 217 (Fig. 119) B. resinae Th. Fr., 355 B. simplex Br. and Rostr., 217 (Fig. 118) B. testudinea Massal., 375

Biatorina Massal., 245, 291 B. Bouteillei Arn., 363 B. chalybeia Mudd, 386 B. coeruleonigricans A. L. Sm., 367 B. globulosa Koerb., 378 B. lenticularis Koerb., 383 B. prasina Syd., 33, 61 B. (denigrata) synothea Koerb., 33, 204

Bilimbia, aromatica Jatta, 349 B. incana A. L. Sm., 343 B. microcarpa Th. Fr., 262 B. obscurata Th. Fr., 262 B. sabulosa Massal., 370 B. sphaeroides Koerb., 385

Bioret, 320

Birger, see Nilson

Bitter, 64, 79, 94, 97, 131, 140, 143, 147, 148, 149, 151, 176, 240, 242, 253, 257, 261, 267, 337, 397

Blackman, 206

Blackman and Welsford, 179

Blastenia Th. Fr., 340

Blastodesmia Massal., 316

Bohler, 415

Bombyliospora De Not., 329

Bonnier, 29, 36, 47, 65, 189, 232, 253

Bornet, 27, 28, 32, 36, 61, 78, 136, 189

Borrer, 12, 14

Borrera, see Physcia

Borzi, 28, 161, 164

Botrydina vulgaris Bréb., xix, 57

Botrydium pyriforme Kütz., 45

Bottaria Massal., 317

Bouilhac, 42, 140

Braconnot, 214

Brandt, 103, 130

Braun, Fr., 354

Braun, L., 393

Brefeld, 189, 207

Brez, 395

Brooks, F. T., 64, 179

Brown, E. W., 402

Brown, W. H., 168

Bryopogon, see Oropogon

Bryum L., 392

Buchet, 90

Buddle, 4

Buellia, De Not., 263, 280, 291, 302, 308, 341, 347 B. aethalea Th. Fr., 261 B. atrata Mudd, 245, 375 B. canescens De Not., 80, 366, 377, 380, 399 B. colludens Tuck., 382, 386 B. coracina Koerb., 375 B. discolor Koerb., 388 B. leptocline Koerb., 374 B. myriocarpa Mudd, 50, 346, 366, 369 B. parasema Th. Fr., 365, 367, 377 B. Parmeliarum Oliv., 263 B. punctiformis, 50, 202, 207 (Fig. 118) B. ryssolea A. L. Sm., 380, 382 (Fig. 125) B. stellulata Mudd, 382, 388 B. triphragmia Th. Fr., 390 B. turgescens Tuck., 367 B. verruculosa Mudd, 261

Buelliaceae, 311, 341

Buxbaum, 6, 10

Buxus sempervirens L., 353

Cactus, 325, 353

Calenia Müll.-Arg., 338

Caliciaceae, 62, 115, 175, 189, 244, 288, 309, 319, 353, 366

Calicium De Not., 184, 201, 277, 319, 361 C. arenarium Nyl., 376 C. corynellum Ach., 376 C. hyperellum Ach., 349, 365 C. parietinum Ach., 202, 367 C. trachelinum Ach., 196, 202, 204

Calkins, 348, 403

Callopisma, see Placodium

Calluna Salisb., 95, 355

Caloplaca Th. Fr. (see Placodium), 340 C. aurantia, var. callopisma Stein., 190 C. gilvella (Nyl.), 276 C. interveniens Müll.-Arg., 276 C. pyracea Th. Fr., 34, 388

Caloplacaceae, 311, 340

Calothricopsis Wain., 333

Calycidium Stirt., 289, 320 C. cuneatum Stirt., 350

Camellia L., 269

Camerarius, 1

Camillea Fr., 276

Campylidium, 191

Campylothelium Müll.-Arg., 317

Candelaria Massal., 339 C. concolor Wain., 365, 388, 399

Candelariella Müll.-Arg., 338 C. cerinella A. Zahlbr., 390 C. vitellina Müll.-Arg., 233, 237, 369, 377, 393, 417

Capnodium Mont., 179

Carpinus Tournef., 240

Carrington, 12

Carroll, 19

Cassini, 21

Catillaria Th. Fr. (see Biatorina), 329 C. Hochstetteri Koerb., 375

Celidiaceae, 265

Cellidium stictarum Tul., 267

Cenomyce Th. Fr., 295

Cephaleuros Kunze (see Mycoidea), 59, 288

Cephaloidei, 303

Cepteus ocellatus, 397

Cerania S. F. Gray, 340 C. vermicularis S. F. Gray, 194, 387

Cetraria Ach., 84, 94, 200, 210, 213, 225, 241, 264, 299, 346, 350, 357, 358, 370, 388, 399 C. aculeata Fr., 211, 241, 262, 299, 300, 355, 369, 384, 385, 386, 387 C. caperata Wain., 264 C. crispa Lamy, 387, 388 C. cucullata Ach., 201, 244, 389 C. diffusa A. L. Sm., 366 C. glauca Ach., 201, 231, 259, 264, 347, 388, 418 C. islandica Ach., 2, 94, 128, 195 (Fig. 112), 210, 212, 221, 227, 231, 241, 338, 355, 387, 401 (Fig. 128), 406, 408, 409, 411, 416 C. juniperina Ach., 201, 246, 416 C. Laureri Kremp., 364 C. nivalis Ach., 201, 210, 389 C. pinastri S. F. Gray, 145, 246, 410 C. tristis, see Parmelia

Chaenotheca Th. Fr., 201, 319 C. chrysocephala Th. Fr., 265, 277, 288

Chalice-Moss, 3

Chambers, 43

Chasmariae, 295

Chevalier, 13

Chiodecton Müll.-Arg., 276, 320, 323, 351, 364

Chiodectonaceae, 59, 278, 309, 323

Chlorella Beij., 56 Ch. Cladoniae Chod., 56 Ch. faginea Wille, 56 (Fig. 23 A) Ch. lichina Chod., 56 Ch. miniata Wille, 56 (Fig. 23 A) Ch. viscosa Chod., 56 Ch. vulgaris Beyer., 42, 56

Chlorococcus (?Chlorococcum Fr.), 24

Chlorophyceae, xix, 51, 55-60, 61, 272, 324

Chodat, 28, 30, 43, 44, 55, 115, 329

Chroococcaceae, 25

Chroococcus Naeg., 24, 52, 82, 136, 153, 284, 311, 332, 373 Ch. giganteus West, 52 (Fig. 16) Ch. Schizodermaticus West, 52 (Fig. 16) Ch. turgidus Naeg., 52 (Fig. 16), 136

Chroolepus Ag., see Trentepohlia C. ebeneus Ag., 22

Chrysothricaceae, 57, 310, 325

Chrysothrix Mont., 325, 353 C. noli tangere Mont., 325

Church, A. Henry, 421

Church, A. Herbert, 402

Cicinnobolus Ehrenb., 261

Cinchona L., 364 C. cordaminea Humb., 364 C. cordifolia Mutis, 364 C. oblongifolia Mutis, 364

Claassen, 34

Cladina Leight., 112, 122, 253, 292

Cladonia Hill, 9, 13, 23, 38, 44, 55, 56, 80, 81, 95, 104, 106, 172, 213, 237, 241, 242, 257, 262, 329, 344, 346, 347, 355, 358, 372, 375, 385, 391, 399, 408 Cl. agariciformis Wulf., 368 Cl. aggregata Ach., 120 Cl. alcicornis Floerk., 385, 386 Cl. alpestris Rabenh., 125, 211, 349, 369 Cl. alpicola Wain., 122 Cl. amaurocrea Schaer., 118 Cl. bellidiflora Schaer., 119 Cl. botrytes Willd., 173 Cl. caespiticia Floerk., 115, 124, 294, 296 Cl. cariosa Spreng., 113, 120, 295, 296, 368 Cl. cartilaginea Müll.-Arg., 122 Cl. ceratophylla Spreng., 122 Cl. cervicornis Schaer., 113, 120, 122, 243, 384, 387 Cl. coccifera Willd., 113, 118, 368, 369, 370, 387 Cl. cristatella Tuck., 367, 369 Cl. decorticata Spreng., 172 (Fig. 98) Cl. deformis Hoffm., 226 Cl. degenerans Floerk., 114, 117, 124 Cl. destricta Nyl., 387 Cl. digitata Hoffm., 113, 122, 371 Cl. divaricata Meng. and Goepp., 355 Cl. enantia f. dilatala Wain., 112 Cl. endiviaefolia Fr., 384 Cl. fimbriata Fr., 51, 117, 120, 295, 296, 349, 367, 368, 370, 377; Subsp. fibula Nyl., 119, 369 Cl. flabelliformis Wain., 371 Cl Floerkeana Fr., 173, 296, 362, 370 Cl. foliacea Willd., 112, 113, 120, 122, 240, 295, 296 Cl. furcata Schrad., 117 (Fig. 70), 118, 124, 194 (Fig. 109), 212, 295, 297, 355, 368, 369, 377, 386 Cl. gracilis Hoffm., 115 (Fig. 68), 122, 124, 210, 297, 367, 369, 387 Cl. leptophylla Floerk., 295, 296 Cl. macilenta Hoffm., 362, 366, 367, 369, 378 Cl. miniata Mey., 112, 122 Cl. nana Wain., 112 Cl. Neo-Zelandica Wain., 112 Cl. papillaria Hoffm., 195, 296, 344 Cl. pityrea Floerk., 255, 366 Cl. pungens Floerk. (see Cl. rangiformis) Cl. pycnoclada Nyl., 345 Cl. pyxidata Hoffm., 2, 44, 110, 111 (Fig. 66), 113, 114, 117 (Fig. 69), 118, 120, 124, 172, 227, 295, 346, 349, 362, 366, 368, 370, 371, 377, 408 Cl. racemosa Hoffm., 387 Cl. rangiferina Web., 56, 95, 117, 119, 120, 210, 211, 215, 227, 231, 237, 238, 253, 267, 293, 297, 349, 355, 357, 369, 386, 388, 400, 411 Cl. rangiformis Hoffm., 271, 295, 366, 368, 386 Cl. retepora Fr., 117, 120 (Fig. 71), 231, 351 Cl. rosea Ludw., 354 Cl. solida Wain., 114 Cl. squamosa Hoffm., 113, 115 (Fig. 67), 118, 210, 243, 295, 366, 368 Cl. sylvatica Hoffm., 95, 112, 117, 119, 271, 349, 366, 368, 369, 385, 400 Cl. symphicarpia Tuck., 367 Cl. tophacea Hill, 8 Cl. turgida Hoffm., 369 Cl. uncialis Web., 112, 120, 369, 387, 389 Cl. verticillaris Fr., 122 Cl. verticillata Floerk., 114, 119, 120, 124, 349, 367, 369

Cladoniaceae, 135, 292, 310, 329, 366, 370

Cladoniodei, 306

Cladophora Kütz., 35, 59, 188 C. glomerata Kütz., 58 (Fig. 30)

Cladophoraceae, 59

Clathrinae, 117, 120

Clathroporina Müll.-Arg., 316

Clausae, 295

Clavaria Vaill., 421

Cleora lichenaria, 399

Cocciferae, 295

Coccobotrys Chod., 30, 40, 56, 315 C. Verrucariae Chod., 57 (Fig. 24)

Coccocarpia Pers., 335 C. molybdaea Pers., 61 C. pellita Müll.-Arg., 166

Coccomyxa Schmidle, 56 C. Solorinae croceae Chod., 56 C. Solorinae saccatae Chod., 56 C. subellipsoidea Acton, 57 (Fig. 25)

Coccotrema Müll.-Arg., 316

Coenogoniaceae, 59, 291, 310, 328

Coenogonium Ehrenb., 23, 35, 69, 182, 246, 291, 328, 351 C. ebeneum A. L. Sm., 22 (Fig. 3), 34, 59, 328, 350, 352, 363 C. implexum Nyl., 352 C. Linkii Ehrenb., 213

Coenothalami, 303

Coleochaete Bréb., 178

Collema Wigg., 6, 9, 21, 23, 25, 30, 48, 69, 87, 132, 165, 173, 200, 230, 284, 305, 334, 367, 392 C. ceranoides Borr., 385 C. cheileum Ach., 161 C. crispum Ach., 161, 180 C. flaccidum Ach., 365 C. fluviatile Sm., 392 C. granulatum Ach., 368 C. granuliferum Nyl., 69, 232, 243 C. Hildenbrandii Garov., 202 (see Leptogium) C. limosum Ach., xx, 21, 349 C. microphyllum Ach., 160 (Fig. 91), 161 (Fig. 92), 202 C. nigrescens Ach., 20 (Fig. 2), 161, 243, 245, 364 C. plicatile, 409 C. pulposum Ach., 24, 162, 179, 186, 202, 266, 368, 385 C. pustulatum Ach., 373 C. pycnocarpum Nyl., 365 C. tenax Sm., 368

Collemaceae, 27, 53, 69, 160, 241, 244, 266, 284, 306, 310, 334, 364, 384, 396

Collemodes Fink, 162 C. Bachmannianum Fink, 162

Collemodium, see Leptogium

Collemopsidium Nyl., 333, 374

Collybia, Quél., 105

Colonna, 3

Combea De Not., 83

Conida Massal., 265, 267 C. rubescens, Arn., 265

Conidella urceolata Elenk., 265

Coniocarpi, 307

Coniocarpineae, 267, 273, 274, 276, 288, 309, 319

Coniocarpon DC., 305

Coniocybe Ach., 277, 319, 366 C. furfuracea Ach., 246, 376

Conotrema Tuck., 326 C. urceolatum Tuck., 343

Convoluta roscoffensis, 40

Cora Fr., 53, 246, 281, 311, 342, 352 C. Pavonia Fr., 88, 152 (Figs. 86, 87)

Coralloides, 5, 6, 7, 303

Corda, 200

Cordus, 409

Cordyceps Fr., 261

Corella Wain., 153, 311, 342, 352 C. brasiliensis Wain., 154

Coriscium Wain., 285, 288, 319

Cornicularia (Cetraria) Schreb., 388 C. ochroleuca Ach., 355 C. subpubescens Goepp., 355 C. succinea Goepp., 355

Corylus Tournef., 240

Cramer, 409

Croall, 19

Crocynia Nyl., 325 C. gossypina Nyl., 325 C. lanuginosa Hue, 325, 373

Crombie, xxi, 7, 18, 19, 197, 260, 262, 264, 306, 361

Crottles, 415

Cruoria Fr., 73

Cryptothecia Stirton, 331

Cryptothele Nyl., 333

Cudbear, 413, 415

Culpepper, 409

Cunningham, 35, 269

Cuppe-Moss, 3

Cupthongs, 9

Curnow, 19

Cutting, 180

Cyanophili, 308, 310

Cyanophyceae, 309; see Myxophyceae

Cycas L., 40

Cyclocarpineae, 273, 279, 290, 309, 324

Cyperus, 419

Cypheliaceae, 309, 320

Cyphelium Th. Fr., 276, 277, 288, 320

Cyphella aeruginascens Karst., 191

Cystococcus Chod., 55, 56 C. Cladoniae fimbriatae Chod., 56 C. Cladoniae pixidatae Chod., 56 (Fig. 56)

Cystococcus Naeg., 24, 26, 28, 34, 115, 229 C. humicola Naeg., 24, 27, 40, 55

Cystocoleus Thwaites, 23

Cytospora Ehrenb., 204

Czapek, 211, 413

Dacampia Massal., 315

Dactylina Nyl., 340 D. arctica Nyl., 339, 346

Dangeard, 185

Danilov, 37

Darbishire, 18, 26, 51, 64, 77, 86, 90, 92, 101, 103, 110, 130, 147, 148, 166, 167, 171, 175, 180, 181, 253, 256, 299, 324, 342, 346, 347, 377, 389

Darbishire and Fischer-Benzon, 307

Darbishirella A. Zahlbr., 324

Davies, 12, 14

Dawson, 178

De Candolle, 12

Deckenbach, 59

Deer, 401

Delise, 13, 126

Dendrographa Darbish., 324 D. leucophaea Darbish., 103, 213

Dermatiscum Nyl., 331

Dermatocarpaceae, 309, 314

Dermatocarpon Eschw., 80, 81, 276, 288, 315 D. aquaticum A. Zahlbr., 391, 392 D. cinereum Th. Fr., 368 D. hepaticum Th. Fr., 368, 388 D. lachneum A. L. Sm., 88, 368 D. miniatum Th. Fr., 56, 96 (Fig. 56), 173 (Fig. 99), 185, 241, 261, 373, 391, 392, 403

Desfontaines, 10

Diatoms, 220

Dichodium Nyl., 334

Dickson, 9

Dictyographa Müll.-Arg., 322

Dictyonema A. Zahlbr., 54, 153, 311, 342, 352

Didymella Sacc., 276

Didymosphaeria pulposi Zopf, 266

Dillenius, xx, 1, 6, 155, 192, 262, 304, 407

Dioscorides, 2

Diplogramma Müll.-Arg., 322

Diplopodon, 270

Diploschistaceae, 310, 326

Diploschistes Norm., 326 D. bryophilus Zahlbr., 374 D. ocellatus Norm., 247, 248, 374 D. scruposus Norm., 195, 214, 241, 243, 262, 368

Diplosphaera Bial., 57 D. Chodati Bial., 57

Dirina Fr., 73, 83, 290, 323

Dirinaceae, 290, 309, 323

Dirinastrum Müll.-Arg., 290, 323

Discocarpi, 307

Discomycetes, 267, 273

Dodoens, 3

Dog-lichen, 408

Domestic animals (Oxen, horses, etc.), 401

Don, 14

Doody, 4

Dorstenius, 2, 408

Dothidea Fr., 317

Dufour, 11

Dufourea Nyl., 340

Dufrenoy, 42, 260, 269

Dumontia Lamour., 111

Dundonald, Lord, 420

Ectolechiaceae, 69, 310, 327, 352, 363

Egeling, 234

Elaphomyces Nees, 261

Elenkin, 36, 37, 258, 265, 347

Elenkin and Woronichin, 353

Elfving, xxi, 25

Encephalographa Massal., 322

Enchylium Massal., see Forssellia

Endocarpon Hedw., 62, 88, 89, 197, 200, 261, 288, 315, 351, 389 E. monstrosum Massal., 373 E. pusillum Hedw., 28 (Figs. 5, 6)

Endocena Cromb., 339, 340

Endomyces scytonemata Zuk., 38

Englehardt, 354

Enterodictyon Müll.-Arg., 323

Enterographa Fée, 320 E. crassa Fée, 350

Enterostigma Müll.-Arg., 323

Erioderma Fée, 335

Eolichen Zuk., 285, 319 E. Heppii Zuk., 319

Ephebaceae, 54, 284, 310, 331

Ephebe Fr., 23, 25, 27, 30, 38, 68, 201, 284, 322 E. lanata Wain., see E. pubescens E. pubescens Nyl., 23 (Fig. 3)

Ephebeia Nyl., 332

Epiconiaceae, 307

Epiconiodei, 306

Epigloea Zuk., 313 E. bactrospora Zuk., 313

Epigloeaceae, 57, 309, 313

Erica tetralix L., 95

Errera, 213, 214, 405

Erysiphe Link, 188

Eschweiler, 15, 184

Escombe, 210

Etard and Bouilhac, 42, 140

Ettingshausen and Debey, 354

Euler, 214

Eunephroma Stiz., 337

Euopsis granatina Nyl., 282, 387

Evernia Ach., 84, 95, 99, 200, 213, 340 E. furfuracea Mann, 24, 38, 94, 99, 108, 142 (Fig. 81), 151, 227, 231, 233, 300, 366, 376, 403, 405 E. prunastri Ach., 2, 100 (Fig. 59), 108, 210, 211, 212, 227, 233, 234, 238, 269, 300, 364, 384, 385, 396, 400, 403, 418, 419

Everniopsis Nyl., 339, 340

Eversman, 404

Famintzin, 24

Farriolla Norm., 319

Faull, 178

Fée, 13, 15, 184, 187, 192, 364

Fink, Bruce, xx, 242, 254, 348, 358, 365, 367, 368, 369, 373, 389, 391

Fischer, 308

Fitting, 36

Fitzpatrick, 181

Flagey, 373, 389

Florideae, 160, 177, 273

Flörke, 12, 13, 133

Flotow, 23, 192

Fontinalis L., 391

Forficula auricularia, 396

Forskål, 403

Forssell, 63, 65, 133, 136, 163, 175, 282, 373

Forssellia A. Zahlbr., 284, 333, 373

Forster, 12, 14

Fossil Lichens, 353-355

Frank, 31, 62, 78

Fraser, 178

French, xxiii

Friedrich, 75, 233, 269, 270

Fries, E., 13, 22, 149, 364

Fries, Th. M., 17, 18, 133, 138, 152, 192, 263, 342

Fucus L., 281 F. spiralis L., 383

Fuisting, 30, 159, 173

Fünfstück, 18, 19, 61, 75, 76, 161, 169, 170, 171, 175, 181, 216, 218, 219, 224, 342

Gage, 14

Galløe, 95, 242

Gargeaune, 45

Gasterolichens, 308

Gautier, 213

Geisleria Nitschke, 314 G. sychnogonioides Nitschke, 370

Georgi, 10, 420

Geosiphon Wettst., 45

Gerard, John, 3, 418

Gibelli, 200

Gilson, 209

Gleditsch, 269

Gloeocapsa Kütz., 23, 32, 55, 61, 68, 136, 195, 232, 284, 292, 332, 373 G. magma Kütz., 52 (Fig. 17), 60, 136 G. polydermatica Kütz., 53

Gloeocystis Naeg., 33, 57 (Fig. 28), 61, 133, 318

Gloeolichens, 175, 282, 284, 373, 389

Glossodium Nyl., 330 G. aversum Nyl., 294

Glück, 198

Glyphis Fée, 276, 323

Glypholecia Nyl., 331

Gmelin, J. F., 152

Gmelin, J. G., 411

Gnomonia erythrostoma Auersw., 178

Goeppert, 354, 393

Goeppert and Menge, 354

Gomphillus Nyl., 293, 330

Gongrosira Kütz., xxi

Gongylia Koerb., 314 G. viridis A. L. Sm., 368, 388

Gonohymenia Stein., 333

Gonothecium Wain., 31, 327

Gordon, Cuthbert, 415

Gossypina Ulmi, 399

Grammophori, 307

Graphidaceae, 59, 158, 309, 321, 351, 352, 364

Graphideae, 13, 17, 27, 34, 62, 78, 79, 172, 348, 349, 351, 353, 364

Graphidineae, 273, 278, 289, 309, 320, 365

Graphina Müll.-Arg., 322

Graphis Adans., 9, 211, 321, 322, 343, 349, 351, 355, 361, 364 G. elegans Ach., 30, 158 (Fig. 89), 172, 180, 397 G. scripta Ach., 50, 349, 354, 365, 366 G. scripta succinea Goepp., 355

Gray, J. E., 12, 305

Grete Herball, 2

Greville, 12

Grimbel, 250

Grimmia pulvinata Sm., 393 G. apocarpa Hedw., 393

Guembel, 392

Guérin-Varry, 210

Guillermond, 167

Gunnera L., 31, 41

Gyalecta Ach., 191, 328 G. cupularis Schaer., 244 G. Flotovii Koerb., 244 G. geoica Ach., 254 G. rubra Massal., 249

Gyalectaceae, 54, 59, 69, 310, 327

Gyalolechia Massal., 201 G. subsimilis (Th. Fr.) Darb., 378

Gymnocarpeae, 156, 308, 318

Gymnoderma Nyl., 330 G. coccocarpum Nyl., 293

Gymnographa Müll.-Arg., 322

Gyrophora Ach., 88, 96, 184, 200, 227, 231, 241, 249, 268, 304, 331, 346, 350, 376, 390, 393, 414 G. cylindrica Ach., 176, 184 (Fig. 103), 375, 387 G. erosa Ach., 330, 387 G. esculenta Miyosh., 403 G. flocculosa Turn. and Borr., 375 G. murina Ach., 94 G. polyphylla Hook., 387 G. polyrhiza Koerb., 94, 349, 404 (Fig. 129) G. proboscidea Ach., 192, 346, 375 G. spodochroa Ach., 94 G. tonefacta Cromb., 375, 387 G. vellea Ach., 74, 176

Gyrophoraceae, 291, 310, 330

Gyrostomum Fr., 326

Haberlandt, 106, 188

Haematomma Massal., 230, 236, 338 H. coccineum Koerb., 214, 223, 226 H. elatinum Koerb., 201 H. ventosum Massal., 214, 225, 241, 252, 298, 375, 376, 388, 393

Hagenia ciliaris, 24

Haller, 7, 126

Halopyrenula Müll.-Arg., 318

Halsey, 14

Hamlet and Plowright, 213

Harmand, 63

Harper, 167, 178, 181, 188

Harpidium Koerb., 298, 338 H. rutilans Koerb., 298

Harriman, 14

Hassea A. Zahlbr., 319

Hedlund, 32, 61, 204, 245

Hedwig, 142, 156, 184, 192

Helix hortensis, 396 H. cingulata, 396

Hellbom, 350, 411

Helminthocarpon Fée, 322

Henneguy, 410, 411, 420

Heppia Naeg., 81, 175, 285, 335, 348, 351, 389 H. Depreauxii Tuck., 368 H. Guepini Nyl., 80, 88, 96 H. virescens Nyl., 368

Heppiaceae, 54, 285, 310

Herberger, 221

Herissey, 213

Herre, 230, 253, 349

Hesse, 12, 221, 224

Heterocarpon Müll.-Arg., 315

Heterodea Nyl., 339 H. Mülleri Nyl., 128, 299, 339, 350

Heterogenei, 303

Heteromyces Müll.-Arg., 293, 330

Heufleria Trev., 317

Hicks, 24

Hildenbrandtia Nardo, 73

Hill, Sir John, 8, 409

Hoffmann, 10, 154, 412, 415

Hofmann, 261

Holl, 19

Holle, 14, 46, 187

Holmes, 19, 422

Homogenei, 303

Homopsella Nyl., 334

Homothalami, 305

Homothecium Mont., 334

Hooker, 12, 15, 149

Hornschuch, xx, 156

How, 3

Howe, Heber, 85, 224, 348

Hudson, 7, 9, 303

Hue, 11, 16, 18, 33, 57, 63, 69, 73, 82, 85, 103, 133, 135, 136, 140, 188, 262, 283, 315, 325, 339, 340, 342, 347, 348, 360, 396, 418

Hulth, 215

Hutchins, 14

Hutchinson, 403

Hydrothyria Russ., 336 H. venosa Russ., 97, 175, 233, 286, 348, 390

Hymenobolina parasitica Zuk., 267, 399

Hymenolichens, xix, 54, 152-154, 273, 281, 308, 311, 335, 342

Hymenomycetes, xix, 153 et passim

Hyphomycetes, xix, 191

Hypnum L., 392 H. cupressiforme L., 385

Hypogymnia Nyl., 94, 176

Hypoxylon Bull., 12

Hysteriaceae, 273, 307

Hysterium Tode, 12

Iceland Moss, 210, 401 et passim

Icmadophila Massal., 166, 338 I. aeruginosa Mudd, see I. ericetorum I. ericetorum A. Zahlbr., 196, 244, 370

Illosporium carneum Fr., 268

Ingaderia Darbish., 324

Iris, white, 419

Isidium Ach., 149 I. corallinum Ach., 149 I. Westringii Ach., 149

Istvanffi, 202, 206

Itzigsohn, 17, 23, 24, 193

Jaczewski, 353

Jasmine, oil of, 419

Jatta, 129

Jenmania Wächt., 333, 352

Jennings, Vaughan, 60

Jesuit’s bark, 10

John, 250

Johnson, C. P., 401, 402

Johnson, W., 19

Johow, 153

Jonaspis Th. Fr., 328

Joshua, 19

Jumelle, 230, 238

Kajanus (Nilson), 151

Karschia Koerb., 280 K. destructans Tobl., 265 K. lignyota Sacc., 280

Keeble, 41

Keegan, 224, 410

Keiszler, 201

Keller, 402

Kerner and Oliver, 215

Kieffer, 371

Kienitz-Gerloff, 51

Kihlman, 237, 358, 388, 401

Knop, 213, 247

Knop and Schnederman, 221

Knowles, 224, 249, 379, 384, 391

Kobert, 409, 410

Koelreuter, 155

Koerber, 14, 123, 142, 188, 305

Koerberia Massal., 334

Kotte, 264

Krabbe, 63, 113, 114, 119, 122, 123, 124, 143, 147, 162, 170, 172, 174, 176, 177, 253

Kratzmann, 214

Krempelhuber, 1, 55, 244, 364

Kupfer, 261

Kützing, 22

Laboulbenia Mont. and Robin, 178

Laboulbeniaceae, 178, 274

Lachnea scutellata Gill., 168 L. stercorea Gill., 178

Lacour, 211

Lang, 76, 216, 235

Larbalestier, 19

Laubert, 206

Laudatea Joh., 154

Laurera Reichenb., 317

Lecanactidaceae, 310, 325

Lecanactis Eschw., 204, 325

Lecania Massal., 136, 338 L. candicans A. Zahlbr., 80 (Fig. 43) L. cyrtella Oliv., 377 L. erysibe Mudd, 377 L. holophaea A. L. Sm., 350

Lecaniella Wain., 327

Lecanora Ach., 78, 88, 200, 298, 305, 338, 347, 349, 351, 353, 364, 365, 372, 390 L. aquatica Koerb., 391 L. aspidophora f. errabunda Hue, 262 L. atra Ach., 63, 225, 249, 375, 380, 382 (Fig. 125), 384, 386, 393 L. atriseda Nyl., 261 L. atroflava, see Placodium L. aurella (Hoffm.), 262 L. badia Ach., 79, 375, 386 L. caesiocinerea Nyl., 218, 384 L. calcarea Somm., 218 (Fig. 120), 373, 396 L. campestris B. de Lesd., 361, 384 L. cenisia Ach., 375 L. cinerea Somm., 229, 349, 375 L. citrina Ach., see Placodium L. coilocarpa Nyl., 30 L. crassa Ach., 79, 81, 201, 218, 367, 368, 373, 389 L. crenulata Hook., 361, 377 L. Dicksonii Nyl., 250, 375 L. dispersa Nyl., 261, 369, 377, 384 L. effusa Ach., 204 L. epanora Ach., 246 L. epibryon Ach., 378, 389 L. epulotica Nyl., 392 L. esculenta Eversm., 211, 257, 265, 298, 389, 404 (Fig. 130), 422 L. exigua, see Rinodina L. ferruginea Nyl., 30 L. galactina Ach., 254, 262, 360, 369, 377, 384, 386 L. gelida Ach., 135, 136, 137 (Fig. 77), 140, 375 L. gibbosa Nyl., 375, 384, 386 L. glaucoma Ach., see L. sordida; var. corrugata Nyl., 84 (Fig. 46) L. Hageni Ach., 366, 367, 369, 377, 383 L. hypnorum Ach., see Psoroma L. lacustris Th. Fr., 233, 250, 391, 392 L. lentigera Ach., 81, 90, 298, 367 L. muralis Schaer., 242 L. ochracea Nyl., 373 L. pallescens Mudd, 213 L. pallida Schaer., 78 L. parella Ach., 72, 375, 382, 384, 417 L. peliocypha Nyl., 375 L. picea Nyl., 374 L. piniperda Koerb., 204 L. polytropa Schaer., 237, 376, 394 L. prosechoides Nyl., 383, 384 L. rubina Wain., 390 L. rugosa Nyl., 366 L. Sambuci Nyl., 204 L. saxicola Ach., 79, 80, 81, 233, 252, 349, 369, 384, 386, 393, 396 L. simplex Nyl. (see Biatorella), 75, 77, 382 L. smaragdula Nyl., 382 L. sophodes Ach., 30; see Rinodina L. sordida Th. Fr., 194, 236, 261, 374, 375, 380, 382 L. squamulosa Nyl., 374 L. subfusca Ach., 22, 30, 49, 65 (Fig. 34), 70 (Fig. 57), 157 (Fig. 88), 164, 166, 167, 168, 236, 347, 365, 366 L. sulphurea Ach., 226, 238, 376, 384 L. tartarea Ach., 57, 147, 183 (Fig. 102), 224, 225, 227, 237, 262, 346, 358, 359, 371, 375, 387, 389, 414 (Fig. 134) L. umbrina Massal., 377, 385 L. upsaliensis Nyl., 387 L. urbana Nyl., 361 L. varia Ach., 227, 346, 360, 361, 362, 366, 367, 377 L. ventosa, see Haematomma L. verrucosa Laur., 378 L. xantholyta Nyl., 373

Lecanoraceae, 136, 311, 337, 353

Lecanorales, 297

Lecidea Ach., 78, 184, 261, 279, 292, 304, 308, 328, 346, 347, 349, 351, 353, 364, 365, 372, 373, 385, 390 L. aglaea Somm., 375 L. albocoerulescens Ach., 392 L. alpestris Somm., 387 L. arctica Somm., 387 L. aromatica (see Bilimbia) L. atrofusca Nyl., 248, 387 L. auriculata Th. Fr., 375 L. Berengeriana Th. Fr., 387 L. coarctata Nyl., 247 L. coeruleonigricans Schaer., 373 L. colludens Nyl., 384; see Buellia L. confluens Ach., 375, 388; f. oxydata Leight., 250 L. consentiens Nyl., 134, 135 L. contigua Fr., 375, 376, 388, 392; var. flavicunda Nyl., 250 L. crustulata Koerb., 369 L. (Bilimbia) cuprea Somm., 387 L. cupreiformis Nyl., 387 L. decipiens Ach., 291, 367, 368 L. decolorans Floerk, see L. granulosa L. demissa Th. Fr., 369, 387 L. diducens Nyl., 375 L. enteroleuca Nyl., 164, 168, 365 L. fumosa Ach., 159 L. fuscoatra Ach., 200 (Fig. 114), 375 L. gelatinosa Floerk., 368 L. granulosa Schaer., 218, 237, 269, 291, 362, 369, 370, 377 L. grisella Floerk., 243 L. helvola Th. Fr., 245 L. herbidula Nyl., xxi L. illita Nyl., 136 L. immersa Ach., 217 (Fig. 117), 398 L. inserena Nyl., 375 L. insularis Nyl., 236, 261 L. irregularis Fée, 192 L. Kochiana Hepp, 375 L. lapicida Ach., 375 L. lavata Nyl., 384 L. limosa Ach., 387 L. lucida Ach., 246, 376 L. lurida Ach., 79, 195, 241, 367 L. mesotropa Nyl., 375 L. Metzleri Th. Fr., 398 L. nigroclavata Nyl., 384 L. ostreata Schaer., 79, 145, 291, 366 L. pallida Th. Fr., 135 L. panaeola Ach., 134, 135, 136, 375 L. parasema Ach., 183 (Fig. 101), 366 L. pelobotrya Somm., 135, 136 L. phylliscocarpa Nyl., 31 L. phyllocaris Wain., 31, 327 L. plana Nyl., 375 L. platycarpa Ach., 375 L. pycnocarpa Koerb., 375 L. quernea Ach., 236, 349, 386 L. rivulosa Ach., 374, 375, 376 L. sanguinaria Ach., 187 (Fig. 105), 248 L. sanguineoatra Ach., 370 L. stellulata Tayl., 376 L. sulphurella Hedl., 242 L. sylvicola Flot., 372 L. testacea Ach., 195 (Fig. 111) L. tricolor Nyl. (Biatorina Griffithii), 362 L. tumida Massal., 375 L. uliginosa Ach., 254, 291, 370, 385, 387 L. vernalis Ach., 66 (Fig. 35)

Lecideaceae, 135, 241, 279, 291, 298, 310, 327, 328, 341, 346, 353

Lecideales, 290, 308

Leciophysma Th. Fr., 334

Leighton, 16, 17, 18, 19, 134, 306, 342, 353, 388

Leiosoma palmicinctum, 397

Lemming rats, 401

Lemmopsis A. Zahlbr., 334

Lenzites Fr., 261, 371

Léorier, 411

Lepidocollema Wain., 81, 336

Lepidoptera, 399

Lepolichen Trevis., 318 L. coccophora Hue, 57, 318 L. granulatus Müll.-Arg., 318

Lepra Hall., 143 L. viridis Humb., 23

Lepraria Ach., 143, 237, 305 L. botryoides, xx L. chlorina, 376

Leprieur, 15

Leprocollema Wain., 285, 354

Leproloma Nyl., 325

Leptodendriscum Wain., 284, 332

Leptogidium Nyl., 284, 332, 350 L. dendriscum Nyl., 332

Leptogium S. F. Gray, 69, 84, 87, 232, 285, 335, 370 L. Burgessii Mont., 245 L. byssinum Nyl., 368 L. Hildenbrandii Nyl., 364 L. lacerum S. F. Gray, 243, 254, 373 L. myochroum Nyl., 365 L. scotinum Fr., 385 L. turgidum Nyl., 385

Leptorhaphis Koerb., 263, 316

Lesdain, Bouly de, 140, 270, 271, 366, 369, 376, 398

Letharia A. Zahlbr., 84, 340 L. vulpina Wain., 95, 105, 226, 228, 246, 265, 349, 364, 410, 417

Lett, 19

Lettau, 225, 227, 369, 391, 417

Lichen, xxvi, 1, 5, 9, 303

Lichen albineus Ludw., 354

Lichen candelarius L., 371, 415

Lichen cinereus terrestris, 407

Lichen dichotomus Engelh., 354

Lichen diffusus Ludw., 354

Lichen gelatinosus Rupp, 6

Lichen juniperinus L., 415

Lichen orbiculatus Ludw., 354

Lichen parietinus L., 371, 415

Lichen Roccella L., 415

Lichen saxatilis L., 415

Lichen tartareus L., 415

Lichen tenellus Scop., 371

Lichenacei, 306

Lichenes Coralloidei etc. Hall., 7

Lichenodium Nyl., 334

Lichenoides, 1, 6, 7, 304, 415

Lichenophoma Keisz., 201

Lichenoxanthine, 418

Lichina Ag., 163, 195, 201, 233, 281, 284, 334, 383 L. confinis Ag., 383, 384 L. pygmaea Ag., 195, 201, 383

Lichinaceae, 55, 99, 310, 333

Lichinella Nyl., 354

Lightfoot, 9, 280, 303, 407, 415

Limax, 396

Lindau, 18, 34, 36, 48, 64, 67, 78, 108, 149, 164, 168, 170, 176, 178, 184, 233, 269, 330

Lindsay, xx, 16, 17, 19, 120, 193, 203, 252, 262, 266, 348, 354, 358, 391, 401, 415, 417

Link, 371

Linkola, 141

Linnaeus, 7, 142, 154, 304, 312, 392, 401, 409, 415

Lister, 267

Listerella paradoxa Jahn, 267

Lithographa Nyl., 322

Lithoicea Massal., see Verrucaria L. lecideoides Massal., 373

Lithothelium Müll.-Arg., 317

Litmus, 413

Lobaria Schreb., 136, 182, 287, 336 L. laciniata Wain., 133, 134 L. laetevirens A. Zahlbr., 2, 196 L. pulmonaria Hoffm., 2, 3, 10, 90, 96, 126 (Fig. 127), 130, 195, 252, 267, 336, 400, 406, 408, 411, 416, 418 L. scrobiculata DC., 130, 143

L’Obel, 2

Lopadiopsis Wain., 327

Lopadium Koerb., 191, 329

Lophothelium Stirt., 319

Loxa (Cinchona), 364

Ludwig, 354

Luffia lapidella, 399

Lung-wort, 406, 409

Lutz, 108

Luyken, xx, 156, 184

Lycoperdaceae, 307

Lyell, 14

Lyngbya Ag., 136

Mackay, 13

McLean, 385

Macmillan, 357, 391

Maheu, 243, 387

Maire, 185, 186, 189

Malinowski, 74, 371, 374

Malme, 261

Malpighi, 5, 142, 155

Manna, 404, 422

Marchantia L., 1, 5

Maronea Massal., 331

Martindale, 19

Martius, 15

Massalongia Koerb., 287, 335

Massalongo, 16, 188, 305

Massee, 308

Mastoidea Hook. and Harv., 315

Mastoidiaceae, 60, 309, 315

Mattirolo, 152

Mäule, 162, 164

Mayfield, 368

Mazosia Massal., 59, 323

Mead, Richard, 407

Megalospora Mey. and Flot., 329

Melampydium Müll.-Arg., 325

Melanotheca Müll.-Arg., 317

Melaspilea Nyl., 321, 322

Mereschkovsky, 258

Merrett, 3

Metzger, 176, 240

Meyer, 13, 46, 51, 126, 143, 156, 187, 252, 258, 305

Micarea Fr., see Biatorina Massal.

Michael, 397

Michaux, 14

Micheli, 1, 6, 142, 155

Microcystis Kütz., 52, 319

Microglaena Lönnr., 314

Micrographa Müll.-Arg., 322

Microphiale A. Zahlbr., 328

Microthelia Koerb., 316

Microtheliopsis Müll.-Arg., 318

Minks, 26

Minksia Müll.-Arg., 323

Mites, 395, 397

Miyoshi, 256, 403

Mnium hornum L., 65 (Fig. 35)

Moebius, 62

Mohl, 185, 186

Molisch, 250

Möller, 49, 154, 196, 202, 203

Moma orion, 399

Monas Lens, xx

Monascus, Van Teigh., 178

Montagne, 15

Moreau, xxi, 168, 175, 176, 212, 266

Moriola Norm., 313

Moriolaceae, 309, 313

Morison, 1, 4, 5, 155, 304

Moss, 356

Mousse des Chênes, 418

Mudd, 16, 17, 19

Muenster, 354

Mühlenberg, 14

Mulder, 210

Müller(-Argau), 18, 26, 191, 192, 205, 278, 307, 353, 405

Müller, K., 212

Müllerella Hepp, 275

Musco-fungus, 1

Muscus, 1

Muscus cranii humani, 413

Musk, 419

Mycetozoon on Lichens, 267

Mycoblastus Norm., 329 M. sanguinarius Th. Fr., 188; see Lecidea

Mycocalicium Rehm, 277 M. parietinum Rehm, 277

Mycoconiocybe Rehm, 277

Mycoidea Cunningh., 35, 59, 309, 318, 352, 363 M. parasitica Cunningh., 36, 59 (Fig. 31), 60

Mycoideaceae, 59

Mycoporaceae, 309, 318, 352

Mycoporellum Zahlbr., 159, 318

Mycoporum Flot., 159, 276, 318

Mycosphaerella Johans., 39

Mycosphaerellaceae, 275

Myriangiacei, 306

Myxodictyon Massal., 338

Myxophyceae, xix, 51, 52-55, 60, 68, 272, 324, 385

Narcyria monilifera, 399

Necker, 123, 154

Nees von Esenbeck, xxiv

Neophyllis Wils., 330, 351

Nephroma Ach., 63, 135, 136, 169, 244, 286, 337, 348 N. expallidum Nyl., 139 (Fig. 79)

Nephromium Nyl., 63, 158, 175, 200, 222, 244, 283, 286, 337, 349, 351 N. laevigatum Nyl., 195 N. lusitanicum Nyl., 228, 246 N. tomentosum Nyl., 87, 128, 169

Nephromopsis Müll.-Arg., 158, 244, 339

Neubert, 410

Neubner, 62, 175, 189, 288

Neuropogon Flot. and Nees, 346

Nienburg, 38, 64, 123, 166, 167, 168, 169, 177, 185, 196, 240

Nilson, 147, 151, 250, 358, 389

Norman, 16, 313

Normandina Nyl., see Coriscium

Normandina Wain., 315

Nostoc Vauch., 20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 32, 42, 53, 61, 63, 69, 136, 138, 232, 246, 266, 285, 309 et seq., 396 N. coerulescens Lyngb., 53 (Fig. 18) N. lichenoides Kütz., xx, 54 N. Linckia Born., 53 (Fig. 18) N. sphaericum Vauch., 54 N. symbioticum, 45

Nostocaceae, 25, 53

Notaris, De, 1, 15, 16

Notaspis lutorum, 397

Nyctalis Fr., 261

Nylander, xxi, 7, 8, 16, 18, 25, 30, 52, 126, 131, 135, 136, 152, 197, 228, 262, 306, 325, 350, 353, 360, 383

Nylanderiella Hue, 315

Obryzum Wallr., 263

Ocellularia Spreng., 326

Ochrolechia Massal., 338 O. pallescens Koerb., 187 (Fig. 106), 213

Ochrophaeae Wain., 295

Officinal barks, 15

Ohlert, 234

Oidia, 189

Olivier, 342

Omphalaria Dur. and Mont., 348, 373, 393 O. Heppii Müll., 63 O. pulvinata Nyl., 373

Oniscus, 396

Oospora Wallr., 45

Opegrapha Ach., 11, 13, 35, 184, 304, 321, 322, 353, 354, 361 O. atra Pers., 15, 202 O. calcarea Turn., 383 O. endoleuca Nyl., 243 O. hapalea Ach., 243 O. saxicola Ach., 216, 219 O. subsiderella Nyl., 50, 202, 349 O. Thomasiana Goepp., 354 O. varia Pers., 354, 365 O. vulgata Ach., 30 O. zonata Koerb., 392

Opegraphella Müll.-Arg., 322

Orbilia coccinella Karst., 261

Orchil lichen, 412, 416

Oribata Parmeliae, 397

Oribatidae, 397

Oropogon Fr., 340 O. loxensis Th. Fr., 130, 210, 352

Orphniospora Koerb., 329

Orthidium, 191

Orthoptera, 397

Oscillaria Bosc., 24

Pachyphiale Lönnr., 328

Padina Pavonia Gaillon, 153

Palmella Lyngb., 24, 57, 232, 278, 282, 289, 309, 321, 338, 353 P. botryoides Kütz., 313

Pannaria Del., 61, 79, 81, 135, 168, 175, 336, 392 P. brunnea Massal., 244, 370 P. microphylla Massal., 81, 244 P. pezizoides Leight., 63 P. rubiginosa Del., 283 P. triptophylla Nyl., 244

Pannariaceae, 54, 135, 285, 287, 311, 335

Pannoparmelia Darbish., 338 P. anzioides Darbish., 90 (Fig. 51)

Paracelsus, 407

Paratheliaceae, 309, 316, 352

Parathelium Müll.-Arg., 317

Parfitt, 95

Parkinson, 3, 407

Parmelei, 353

Parmelia Ach., 84, 86, 93, 94, 95, 133, 200, 213, 227, 231, 238, 241, 242, 249, 260, 264, 267, 269, 299, 300, 305, 346, 347, 348, 349, 351, 354, 364, 372, 414 P. acetabulum Dub., 30, 167, 169 (Fig. 96), 170, 180, 195 (Fig. 111), 231, 255, 259, 360 P. adglutinata Floerk., 365 P. aleurites Ach., 364 P. alpicola Fr., 18, 350, 387 P. aspidota Rosend. (see P. exasperata), 92 (Fig. 53), 170, 338 P. Borreri Turn., 265; see P. dubia P. caperata Ach., 88 (Fig. 49), 253, 255, 365, 366, 395 P. cetrata Ach., 92 P. conspersa Ach., 194, 241, 242, 355, 369, 376, 416, 417 P. crinita Nyl., 365 P. dubia Schaer., 377 P. encausta Ach., 268, 388, 393 P. enteromorpha Ach., 131 P. exasperata Carroll, 62, 129 (Fig. 74), 132, 196 P. farinacea Bitt., 131, 143 P. fuliginosa Nyl., 247, 361, 376, 386 P. glabra Nyl., 87, 170, 176 P. glabratula Lamy, 170 P. glomellifera Nyl., 249, 251 P. hyperopta Ach., 261 P. isidiophora A. Zahlbr., 66 P. Kamtschadalis Eschw., 300 P. lacunosa Meng. and Goepp., 355 P. lanata Wallr., see P. pubescens P. locarensis Zopf., 249 P. molliuscula Ach., 265 P. Mougeotii Schaer., 375 P. obscurata DC., 64, 131, 176, 242 P. olivacea Ach., 247, 365 P. omphalodes Ach., 3, 260, 375, 387, 415 (Fig. 135) P. papulosa Rosend., 150, 214, 219 P. perforata Hook. (?), 365 P. perlata Ach., 92, 114, 213, 237, 243, 262, 353, 363, 403, 416 P. pertusa Schaer., 131 P. physodes Ach., 64, 91, 144 (Fig. 83), 146 (Fig. 84), 156, 194, 234, 237, 242, 253, 262, 299, 355, 361, 363, 366, 384, 385, 416 P. pilosella Hue, 92 P. proboscidea Tayl., 92, 150 P. prolixa Carroll, 241, 249, 382 P. pubescens Wain., 85, 299, 300, 350, 375, 387 P. revoluta Floerk., 247, 259 (Fig. 121) P. saxatilis Ach., 169, 170, 242, 243, 253, 260, 355, 361, 365, 366, 375, 386, 387, 393, 407 (Fig. 131), 416 P. scortea Ach., 150, 366 P. stygia Ach., 130, 299, 350, 375, 387, 393 P. subaurifera Nyl., 143, 226, 246, 377 P. sulcata Tayl., 144, 361 P. tiliacea Ach., 164, 170, 252, 365 P. tristis Wallr., 88, 130, 247, 375, 387 P. verruculifera Nyl., 87, 143, 214 P. vittata Nyl., 131, 143

Parmeliaceae, 200, 287, 298, 311

Parmeliales, 308

Parmeliella Müll.-Arg., 81, 286, 336

Parmeliopsis Nyl., 339

Parmentaria Fée, 317

Patellaria Fr., 280

Patellariaceae, 278

Patinella Sacc., 279 P. atroviridis Rehm, 278

Patouillard, 389

Paulia Fée, 284, 333, 352

Paulson, 244, 254, 366

Paulson and Hastings, 28, 38, 44, 56, 260

Paulson and Thompson, 254, 361, 369, 377, 397

Peccania Forss., 284, 333, 373

Peirce, xxiii, 33, 34, 108, 258, 359

Peltati, 305

Peltidea Ach., 63, 286; see Peltigera

Peltigera Willd., 3, 42, 53, 61, 63, 88, 135, 136, 137, 168, 175, 186, 204, 212, 213, 222, 232, 242, 257, 266, 283, 286, 337, 346, 349, 355, 367, 384, 385, 392 P. americana Wain., 351 P. aphthosa Willd., 26, 87, 133, 138 (Fig. 78 A, B), 141, 211, 262, 347, 359, 370, 406 P. canina Willd., 24, 51, 84 (Fig. 47), 87, 89 (Fig. 50), 93 (Figs. 54, 55), 97, 185, 213, 254, 262, 359, 367, 370, 394, 396, 407, 418 P. horizontalis Hoffm., 169, 244 P. lepidophora (Nyl.) Bitt., 140 P. leptoderma Nyl., 351 P. malacea Fr., 169, 370 P. polydactyla Hoffm., 51, 244, 266, 368 P. rufescens Hoffm., 169, 386 P. spuria Leight., 268, 369 P. spuriella Wain., 351 P. venosa Hoffm., 244, 347

Peltigeraceae, 54, 135, 283, 286, 287, 311, 336

Pelvetia canaliculata Dec. and Thur., 39

Pentagenella Darbish., 83, 324

Perforaria Müll.-Arg., 337

Persio, 413

Persoon, 10, 21, 123, 156, 395

Pertusaria DC., 34, 73, 85, 86, 88, 170, 180, 186, 213, 246, 253, 337, 414 P. amara Ach., 148, 236, 243, 349, 361, 366, 408 (Fig. 132) P. communis DC., 50, 202, 214 (Fig. 116), 255, 269, 366, 393 P. concreta Nyl., 382 P. corallina (Ach.) Bachm., 374 P. dactylina Nyl., 387 P. dealbata Cromb., 215, 375, 376 P. faginea Leight., 396 P. globulifera Nyl., 33 (Fig. 12), 236, 237, 262, 357, 366 P. glomerata Schaer., 387 P. lactea Nyl., 374, 376 P. leioplaca Schaer., 365 P. lutescens Lamy, 226 P. melaleuca Dub., 417 P. oculata Th. Fr., 387 P. velata Nyl., 265 P. Wulfenii DC., 226, 366

Pertusariaceae, 147, 311

Petch, 397

Petiver, 4, 10

Petractis Fr., 327 P. exanthematica Fr., 61, 75, 215, 216

Peziza Dill., 157, 213, 307 P. resinae Fr., 355

Pfaff, 221

Pfeffer, 220

Phacopsis vulpina Tobl., 265

Phaeographina Müll.-Arg., 322

Phaeographis Müll.-Arg., 322 Ph. Lyellii A. Zahlbr., 350

Phaeotrema Müll.-Arg., 326

Phalena, 395

Phascum cuspidatum Schreb., 45

Phialopsis rubra Koerb., 174, 249; see Gyalecta

Phillips, 252

Phleopeccania Stein., 284, 333, 352

Phlyctella Müll.-Arg., 338

Phlyctidia Müll.-Arg., 338

Phlyctis Wallr., 338 P. agelaea Koerb., 174

Phycolichens, 22, 282, 283, 285

Phycopeltis Millard., 59, 278, 318, 321, 322, 323, 327, 352, 363 P. expansa Jenn., 35 (Fig. 13), 60 (Fig. 32)

Phyllactidium Moeb., 59, 62, 288, 309, 310, 318, 327, 363 P. tropicum Moeb., 59

Phylliscidium Forss., 333

Phylliscum Nyl., 286, 333

Phyllobathelium Müll.-Arg., 318

Phyllophora Grev., 111

Phyllophthalmaria A. Zahlbr., 326, 352 Ph. coccinea A. Zahlbr., 352

Phylloporina Müll.-Arg., 318

Phyllopsora Müll.-Arg., 329 P. furfuracea A. Zahlbr., 329

Phyllopsoraceae, 310, 329

Phyllopyreniaceae, 309, 318

Phymaloidei, 304

Physcia Schreb., 90, 94, 166, 186, 238, 301, 351, 372, 399 P. aipolia Nyl., 20 (Fig. 1), 249 P. aquila Nyl., 380, 382, 384 P. ascendens Bitt., 270, 369, 377 P. caesia Nyl., 226, 369, 384 P. chrysophthalma, see Teloschistes P. ciliaris DC., 3, 46, 84 (Fig. 48), 92, 94, 99, 103, 155, 165 (Fig. 94), 166, 167, 182 (Fig. 100), 184, 185 (Fig. 104), 187, 189, 192, 243, 246, 247, 355, 360, 411, 419 P. granulifera Nyl., 365 P. hispida Tuck., 29, 92, 146, 164, 166, 169, 194 (Fig. 110), 241, 271, 360, 366 P. hypoleuca Tuck., 399 P. intricata Schaer., 301 P. leucomelas Mich., 99 P. obscura Nyl., 243, 360, 365, 369, 377 P. parietina (see Xanthoria), 29 (Figs. 7, 8) P. picta Nyl., 349, 353 P. pulverulenta Nyl., 28, 164 (Fig. 93), 166, 181, 248, 360, 365, 366, 377, 399 P. puncticulata Hue, 33 P. sciastrella Hann., 369 P. stellaris Nyl., 29, 365, 384 P. stellaris var. tenella Cromb., see P. hispida Tuck. P. subobscura A. L. Sm., 384 P. tenella Bitt., 366, 384, 386 P. tribacia Nyl., 365 P. villosa Dub., 268

Physciaceae, 136, 200, 267, 300, 308, 311, 341

Physcidia Tuck., 299, 339 Ph. Wrightii Nyl., 352

Physma Massal., 163, 284, 334, 341 P. chalazanum Arn., 32 (Fig. 9) P. compactum Koerb., 163, 266 P. franconicum Massal., 263

Pilocarpaceae, 310, 325

Pilocarpon Wain., 325, 353; see Pilophorus P. leucoblepharum Wain., 325, 363

Pilophorus Th. Fr., 17, 125, 133, 135, 201, 292, 294, 297, 330 P. robustus Th. Fr., 136

Pinus sylvestris L., 94, 271

Piptocephalis De Bary, 261

Placidiopsis Beltr., 288

Placodium DC., 80, 339, 340, 346, 360, 372 P. atroflavum A. L. Sm., 386 P. aurantiacum Hepp, 365 P. bicolor Tuck., 136 P. callopismum Mér., 349 P. cerinum Hepp, 262, 365, 366, 367 P. citrinum Hepp, 224, 271, 349, 373, 377, 386, 393 P. decipiens Leight., 218, 369, 383 P. elegans DC., 225, 241, 347, 369, 390 P. ferrugineum Hepp, 346, 384 P. flavescens A. L. Sm., 377 P. fruticulosum Darbish., 347 P. fulgens S. F. Gray, 367 P. lacteum Lesd., 377 P. lobulatum A. L. Sm., 379, 382, 384 P. luteoalbum Hepp, 301 P. murorum DC., 42, 80 (Fig. 42), 227, 241, 243, 347, 369, 380 P. nivale Tuck., 301 P. pyraceum Anzi, 369, 377 P. rupestre Br. and Rostr., 301 P. subfruticulosum Elenk., 347 P. sympageum, see P. flavescens P. tegularis (Ehrh.) Darbish., 379, 384 P. teicholytum DC., 369

Placodium Hill (non DC.), 8

Placodium Web. (non DC.), 9 P. Garovagli (Koerb.) Fried., 81 P. saxicolum S. F. Gray, 146, 168; see Lecanora

Placolecania Zahlbr., 338

Placothelium Müll.-Arg., 285, 319

Placynthium Ach., 336 P. nigrum S. F. Gray, 248, 373

Plagiothecium sylvaticum Buch. and Schimp., 237

Plagiotrema Müll.-Arg., 317

Platygrapha Nyl., 325

Platysma Nyl., 8, 200, 257; see Cetraria P. commixtum Nyl., 375 P. corniculatum Hill, 8 P. Fahlunense Nyl., 375 P. glaucum Nyl., 10, 375, 376, 418 P. lacunosa Nyl., 375

Pleospora collematum Zuk., 163, 266

Pleurococcus Menegh. (?), 22, 29, 62 P. Naegeli Chod., 28 P. vulgaris Menegh., 28, 55 (Fig. 22), 223 P. vulgaris Naeg., 28

Pleurocybe Müll.-Arg., 320 P. madagascarea A. Zahlbr., 289

Pleurothelium Müll.-Arg., 317

Pleurotrema Müll.-Arg., 317

Plot, 4

Plowright, 207

Plukenet, 5

Poa compressa L., 393

Poduridae, 256

Polyblastia Massal., 48, 314 P. catalepta (Ach.) Fuist., 30 P. Vouauxi Lesd., 378

Polyblastiopsis Nyl., 316

Polycauliona Hue, 339, 340, 346 P. regale Hue, 339, 346

Polycaulionaceae, 339

Polychidium A. Zahlbr., 284, 332

Polycoccus Kütz., 24 P. punctiformis Kütz., 24, 54, 61

Polyporus Mich., 261

Polystictus versicolor (Fr.), 152

Polystigma rubrum DC., 178, 207

Polystroma Clem., 326 P. Ferdinandezii Clem., 326

Polytrichum L., 392 P. commune L., 237

Polyxenus, 270

Porina Ach., 204, 316 P. lectissima A. Zahlbr., 249, 251, 392 P. olivacea A. L. Sm., 159 (Fig. 90 A)

Porocyphus Koerb., 332

Poronia Willd., 13, 178

Porta, 5

Porter, 109, 270

Prasiola Ag., 60, 309, 315 P. parietina Wille, 60 (Fig. 33)

Prasiolaceae, 60

Propagula, 11

Protocaliceaceae, 277

Protococcaceae, 55, 288, 291, 309, 310, 313 et seq., 353, 363

Protococcus Ag., xx, 28, 56, 62, 63, 65, 287 P. botryoides Kirchn., 65 P. viridis Ag., 22, 28, 44, 48 (Fig. 15), 55 (Fig. 22), 65, 313

Pseudopyrenula Müll.-Arg., 316

Psocus, 397

Psora (Lecidea) decipiens Hook., 388

Psorella Müll.-Arg., 329

Psoroglaena Müll.-Arg., 315

Psoroma S. F. Gray, 136, 285, 286, 335 P. hypnorum S. F. Gray, 63, 81, 88, 89, 135, 246, 283, 370

Psoromaria Nyl., 285, 286, 335

Psorotichia Massal., 68, 163, 333, 373 Ps. lugubris Dal. Tor. and Sarnth., 375 Ps. lutophila Arn., 368

Psychides, 399

Pterygiopsis Wain., 332

Pterygium Nyl., 333 Pt. Kenmorensis A. L. Sm., 392

Ptychographa Nyl., 321, 322

Pulteney, 4, 14

Pulvis antilyssus, 407

Pulvis Cyprius, 419

Pycnothelia (Cladonia) papillaria Duf., 369

Pyrenastrum Eschw., 317

Pyrenidiaceae, 53, 54, 275, 285, 309, 319

Pyrenidium Nyl., 285, 319 P. actinellum Nyl., 99

Pyrenocarpeae, 158, 273, 308

Pyrenocarpei, 306, 307, 353

Pyrenocarpineae, 273, 275, 288, 308

Pyrenocollema Reinke, 334

Pyrenographa Müll.-Arg., 323

Pyrenolichens 159, 241, 276, 352, 391

Pyrenomycetes 158, 267, 273

Pyrenopsidaceae, 282, 284, 310, 352

Pyrenopsidium Forss., 333

Pyrenopsis Nyl., 60, 68, 163, 175, 333 P. haematopis Th. Fr., 195 P. impolita Forss., 175 P. phaeococca Tuck., 175

Pyrenothamnia Tuck., 99, 315 P. Spraguei Tuck., 288

Pyrenothamniaceae, 309, 315

Pyrenothea Ach., 192

Pyrenothrix Riddle, 319

Pyrenula Ach., 200, 316 P. cinerella Fink, 365 P. leucoplaca Koerb., 365 P. nitida Ach., 174, 194, 240, 255, 350, 354, 364, 365 P. thelena Fink, 365

Pyrenulaceae, 50, 276, 309, 316, 365

Pyrgidium Nyl., 319 P. bengalense Nyl., 353

Pyrgillus Nyl., 289, 320

Pyronema Carus., 167 P. confluens Tul., 178

Pyxidium Hill, 8

Pyxine Nyl., 301, 341 P. Cocoës Nyl., 353 P. Meissnerii Tuck., 353

Quercus alba, 359 Q. chrysolepis, 359 Q. Douglasii, 359

Racodium Pers., 35, 328 R. rupestre Pers., 291, 328

Radais, 42

Ramalina Ach., 3, 84, 103, 110, 195, 213, 238, 244, 257, 270, 305, 340, 347, 348, 351, 359, 361, 363 R. calicaris Fr., 3, 104, 147, 210, 353, 355, 365, 366, 418, 419 R. ceruchis De Not., 103 R. Curnowii Cromb., 104, 109 R. cuspidata Nyl., 225, 271 (see R. siliquosa), 384 R. dilacerata Hoffm., 106, 130 R. Eckloni Mont., 130 R. evernioides Nyl., 103, 300 R. farinacea Ach., 10, 239, 269, 271, 353, 366, 400, 411 R. fastigiata Ach., 109, 365, 366, 400, 411 R. fraxinea Ach., 104, 106, 130 (Fig. 75 A), 155, 164, 170, 195, 200, 212, 215, 300, 355, 365, 366, 400, 411, 418 R. gracilenta Ach., 349 R. homalea Ach., 103 R. Landroensis Zopf, 109, 130 R. minuscula Nyl., 103 (Fig. 62), 147 R. pollinaria Ach., 109, 227, 349, 366 R. reticulata Krempelh., 33 (Fig. 11), 99, 106 (Fig. 64), 253, 257, 359 R. scopulorum Ach., see R. siliquosa R. siliquosa A. L. Sm., 104, 109 (Fig. 65), 130, 224, 225, 271, 300, 379 (Fig. 122), 381 (Figs. 123, 124) R. strepsilis Zahlbr., 104, 130 (Fig. 75 B) R. subfarinacea Nyl., 380 R. tertiaria Engelh., 354

Ramalinaceae, 339

Ramalinites lacerus Braun, 354

Ramalodei, 306

Ramonia Stizenb., 328

Rathapu, 403

Ray, 4, 407, 409

Rees, 27

Rehm, 277

Reindeer, 401

Reindeer moss, 400 et passim

Reinke, 18, 31, 41, 68, 123, 125, 130, 144, 253, 277, 284, 291, 307, 324

Reinkella Darbish., 83, 324

Relhan, 9

Rhabdopsora Müll.-Arg., 319

Rhizina undulata Fr., 181

Rhizocarpon Ramond, 248, 302, 329, 341 R. alboatrum Th. Fr., 365, 369, 373, 383 R. concentricum, see R. petraeum R. confervoides DC., 71 (Fig. 38 A, B), 369, 386 R. distinctum Th. Fr., 261 R. epipolium (Ach.), 265 R. geographicum DC., 73, 74 (Figs. 40, 41), 226, 236, 243, 246, 249, 252, 261, 264, 291, 346, 372, 374, 376, 380 R. obscuratum Massal., 392 R. Oederi Koerb., 375 R. petraeum Koerb. (?), 374 R. petraeum Massal., 171 (Fig. 97), 375, 392 R. viridiatrum Koerb., 249, 375, 376

Rhizomorpha Roth, 12

Rhymbocarpus punctiformis Zopf, 264

Ricasolia De Not., 94 (see Lobaria), 168, 175 R. amplissima De Not., 133, 134 (Fig. 76), 195, 197, 357 R. laetevirens Leight., 357

Richard, 377, 411

Richardson, Dr, 6

Richardson, Sir John, 388

Riddle, 137

Rinodina S. F. Gray, 301, 302, 341, 372 R. archaea Wain., 346 R. Conradi Koerb., 370 R. exigua S. F. Gray, 366, 367, 377, 383, 384 R. isidioides Oliv., 301 R. oreina Wain., 301, 374, 390 R. sophodes Th. Fr., 367 R. turfacea Th. Fr., 262, 377

Rivularia, 55, 136, 138, 284, 333 R. Biasolettiana, 54 (Fig. 21) R. minutula Born. and Fl., 54 (Fig. 21) R. nitida Ag., 55

Rivulariaceae, 54

Roccella DC., 3, 34, 35, 83, 103, 200, 225, 233, 242, 278, 292, 324, 351, 359, 363 R. fuciformis DC., 83 (Fig. 45), 98 (Fig. 57), 101, 110, 227, 228, 349, 350, 412 R. fucoides Wain., 349, 350 R. Montagnei Bél., 213, 413 R. peruensis Kremp., 413 R. phycopsis Ach., 110; see R. fucoides R. portentosa Mont., 413 R. sinuensis Nyl., 413 R. tinctoria DC., 213, 215, 227, 349, 350, 413 (Fig. 133)

Roccellaceae, 59, 83, 110, 279, 290, 309, 323

Roccellaria Darbish., 323, 324

Roccellina Darbish., 83, 290, 323, 324

Roccellographa Stein., 83, 290, 323, 324

Rock tripe, 404

Roebuck, 401

Ronceray, 213, 413

Rosendahl, 86, 90, 93, 129, 170, 176, 214, 218, 249

Roses, spirit of, 419

Roy, 411

Ruel, 2

Rupp, 5

Russula Pers., 161

Sachs, 17, 23

Sagedia, see Verrucaria S. declivum Am., 251

Sagiolechia Massal., 328

Salix repens L., 357

Salter, 51, 393

Sandstede, 233, 384, 385

Sappin-Trouffy, 207

Sarcographa Fée, 323

Sarcographina Müll.-Arg., 323

Sarcogyne (= Biatorella) latericola Stein., 76

Sarcopyrenia Nyl., 314

Sättler, 123, 173, 296, 358

Schade, 376

Schaerer, 15, 192

Schellenberg, 212

Schenk, 213

Schikorra, 178

Schimper, 354, 355

Schismatomma Flot., 325

Schizopelte Th. Fr., 83, 324

Schneider, 7, 135, 136, 139

Schreber, 126

Schrenk, 231, 258, 359

Schulte, 104, 105, 106, 177

Schwarz, 224

Schweinfurth, 405

Schweinitz, 15

Schwenckfeld, 3

Schwendener, xx, 2, 16, 17, 18, 25, 27, 36, 71, 82, 86, 92, 126, 128, 129, 142, 147, 168, 213, 224, 307

Sclerophyton Eschw., 323 S. circumscriptum A. Zahlbr., 322

Scopoli, 8, 21, 154, 409

Scott-Elliot, 253

Scutellati, 305

Scutovertes maculatus, 397

Scytonema Ag., 54, 57, 61, 68, 75, 136, 153, 216, 232, 281, 284, 309 et seq., 318 S. mirabile Thur., 53 (Fig. 19)

Scytonemaceae, 54

Secoliga (Gyalecta) bryophaga Koerb., 368

Segestria, see Porina

Senft, 223

Septoria Fr., 204

Sernander, 94, 140, 355

Servettaz, 45

Servit, 374

Sherard, 4, 6, 7

Sibbald, 409

Sibthorp, 9

Sievers, 230

Simonyella Steiner, 324

Siphula Fr., 340

Sirosiphon pulvinatus Bréb., 54

Sloane, 10

Smith, Lorrain, 328

Smith, Sir J. E., 10

Solorina Ach., 56, 63, 85, 94, 135, 136, 168, 175, 176, 183, 287, 337, 392 S. bispora Nyl., 135 S. crocea Ach., 63, 88, 140, 210, 228, 246, 287, 346, 388 S. octospora Arn., 85 S. saccata Ach., 155, 244, 388 S. spongiosa Carroll, 135, 186, 368

Solorinella Anzi, 337

Sorby, 418

Sowerby, James, 10

Speerschneider, 17, 25

Sphaeria Hall., 192, 213

Sphaeriaceae, 307

Sphaerocephalum Web., 9

Sphaerophoraceae, 135, 309, 320

Sphaerophoropsis Wain., 291, 329 S. stereocauloides Wain., 292

Sphaerophorus Pers., 83, 105, 184, 277, 289, 320, 361, 375, 387, 393 S. coralloides Pers., 83 (Fig. 44) (see S. globosus), 355, 375, 387, 388, 389 S. fragilis Pers., 375, 387 S. globosus A. L. Sm., 346 S. stereocauloides Nyl., 135

Sphagnum Dill., 231, 355

Spheconisca Norm., 313

Sphinctrina Fr., 277, 319, 353

Sphyridium byssoides, 177 S. fungiforme Koerb., 177

Spilonema Born., 68, 333

Spirographa A. Zahlbr., 322

Spirogyra Link, 188

Splachnum L., 5

Sporocladus lichenicola Corda, 200

Sporodinia Link, 188

Sporopodium Mont., 327, 352 S. Caucasium Elenk. and Woron., 353

Sprengel, 21, 142, 156, 184

Squamaria DC., 200, 298 S. saxicola, see Lecanora

Stahel, 220

Stahl, 28, 30, 62, 160, 163, 173, 266, 395

Stahlecker, 76, 235, 371, 374

Staurothele Norm., 31, 62, 76, 314 S. clopima Th. Fr., 391 S. clopismoides Anzi, 249 S. hymenogonia A. Zahlbr., 361 S. umbrinum A. L. Sm., 373, 393

Steganosporium cellulosum Corda, 201

Steiner, 75, 179, 190, 198, 215, 276, 312, 353, 389

Steinera A. Zahlbr., 333

Stenberg, 411

Stenhouse and Groves, 228

Stenocybe Nyl., 177, 319

Stereocaulon Schreb., 17, 23, 83, 105, 125, 133, 135, 176, 201, 283, 292, 294, 297, 330, 346, 358, 361, 387 S. alpinum Laur., 137, 346, 387 S. condensatum Hoffm., 319, 388 S. coralloides Fr., 125, 375 S. Delisei Borg., 375 S. denudatum Floerk., 137, 375, 387 S. evolutum Graewe, 375 S. paschale Fr., 211, 372, 385, 391, 401 S. ramulosum Ach., 125, 136 S. salazinum Borg., 227 S. tomentosum Fr., 125, 136, 387

Stereochlamys Müll.-Arg., 316

Stichococcus Naeg., 62 S. bacillaris Naeg., 42

Sticta Schreb., 13, 63, 85, 86, 94, 136, 138, 200, 283, 287, 336, 350, 351, 364, 392 St. aurata Ach., 126, 128, 223, 226, 246, 350 St. crocata Ach., 128, 246 St. damaecornis Nyl., 127 (Fig. 73), 128, 210, 350 St. Dufourei Del., 128 St. fuliginosa Ach., 126, 128, 223 St. intricata Del., 128 St. limbata Ach., 128 St. oregana Tuck., 136, 139 St. sylvatica Ach., 128 St. Wrightii Nyl., 349

Stictaceae, 96, 136, 286, 311, 336, 347, 350, 418

Stictidaceae, 278

Stictina Nyl., 63, 168, 175, 287

Stictis Pers., 278

Stigmatea Fr., 275

Stigonema Ag., 23, 26, 54 (Fig. 20), 68, 136, 283, 284, 310 et seq., 317 S. panniforme Kirchn., 54

Stigonemaceae, 54

Stirton, 331, 350

Stizenberger, 18, 128

Stone, 399

Streptothrix Cohn, 45

Strigula Fr., 60, 65, 288, 318, 353, 363 S. Buxi Chod., 363 S. complanata Mont., 35, 42, 59, 205, 260, 269 S. elegans Müll.-Arg., 205

Strigulaceae, 59, 60, 204, 309, 318, 363

Stüde, 211

Sturgis, 97, 168, 175, 197, 289

Suaeda fruticosa Forsk., 387

Swartz, 10, 152

Swedish moss, 415

Symbiosis, 31

Synalissa Fr., 32, 33, 61, 284, 333, 373 S. symphorea Nyl., 33 (Fig. 10)

Synarthonia Müll.-Arg., 321

Tabernaemontanus, 2

Tapellaria Müll.-Arg., 327

Taylor, 13, 149

Tegeocranus labyrinthicus, 328

Teloschistaceae, 311, 341

Teloschistes Norm., 85, 301, 341 T. chrysophthalmus Th. Fr., 92, 365, 367 T. flavicans Norm., 3, 301, 341, 417

Teras literana, 399

Termes monoceros, 397

Termites, 397

Tetranychus lapidus, 398 (Fig. 126)

Tetrasporaceae, 57

Thamnolia Ach., 83, 101 (see Cerania), 246, 340, 389 Th. vermicularis Schaer., 346, 377

Thamnonia Tuck., 339

Thaxter, 178

Thelenidia Nyl., 314

Thelephora Ehrh., 281, 342

Thelephoraceae, 152, 273

Thelidea Hue, 335 Th. corrugata Hue, 335

Thelidium Massal., 314 Th. microcarpum A. L. Sm., 361 Th. minutulum Koerb., 253, 367

Thelocarpon Nyl., 331 Th. prasinellum Nyl., 367 Th. turficolum Arn., 370

Thelopsis Nyl., 316

Thelotrema Ach., 326, 343 Th. lepadinum Ach., 397

Thelotremaceae, 59, 302, 310, 326, 351, 352

Thelotremei, 353

Theophrastus, 1, 2, 411

Thermutis Fr., 68, 284, 332

Tholurna Norm., 320 Th. dissimilis Norm., 289

Thomas, N., 59

Thrambium Wallr., 192, 314 T. epigaeum Wallr., 254, 367, 368

Thwaites, 17

Thyrea Massal., 284, 333

Thysanothecium Berk. and Mont., 330 T. Hookeri Berk. and Mont., 294

Ticothecium Flot., 275, 319 T. pygmaeum Koerb., 267

Tieghem, Van, 179

Tobler, 43, 50, 148, 224, 253, 263, 265, 280

Tomasiella Müll.-Arg., 317

Toni, De, 60

Toninia Th. Fr., 329

Torrey, 14

Tournefort, 1, 5, 155, 304

Tournesol, 413

Treboux, 40, 42

Trematosphaeropsis Elenk., 266

Tremotylium Nyl., 326

Trentepohlia Born., 26, 30, 34, 59, 75, 78, 232, 246, 276, 278, 287, 289, 291, 309, 316 etc., 343, 352, 365 T. abietina Hansg., 65, 66 T. aurea Mart., 34, 35, 58 (Fig. 29 A), 59 T. jolithus, 223 T. umbrina Born., 22, 34, 58 (Fig. 29 B), 59, 62, 216

Trentepohliaceae, 59, 288, 289

Treub, 28, 394

Treveris, Peter, 2

Tricothelium Müll.-Arg., 318

Trimmatothele Norm., 314

Tripe de Roche, 404

Trypetheliaceae, 309, 317

Trypethelium Spreng., 276, 317, 351, 364

Tubercularia Web., 9

Tuckerman, 15, 136, 339

Tulasne, 17, 25, 46, 70, 123, 159, 187, 189, 192, 193, 200, 204, 263

Turner, Dawson, 14

Tutt, 399

Tylophorella Wain., 320

Tylophoron Nyl., 289, 320

Uhlir, 43

Ulander, 211

Uloth, 233

Umbilicaria, 17, 82, 200, 241, 262, 268, 331 U. pustulata Hoffm., 86, 96, 150, 195, 214, 240, 257, 414

Unguentum Armarium, 407

Unguentum sympatheticum, 407

Urceolaria Ach., 48; see Diploschistes

Urococcus Kütz., 57, 133, 318

Usnea Dill., 1, 3, 7, 9, 83, 111, 195, 213, 233, 257, 268, 269, 300, 304, 305, 340, 347, 348, 351, 361, 408, 419 U. articulata Hoffm., 210, 268 U. barbata Web., 25, 99 (Fig. 58), 104 (Fig. 63 A), 130, 143 (Fig. 82), 167 (Fig. 95), 168, 177, 200, 211, 215, 226, 234, 239, 246, 339, 348, 364, 417 U. ceratina Ach., 227 U. compressa Hill, 8 U. dasypoga Stiz., 359 U. florida Web., 91 (Fig. 52), 92, 210, 213, 348, 363, 411 U. hirta Hoffm., 348, 355, 366 U. laevis Nyl., 177 U. longissima Ach., 85, 99, 102 (Fig. 61), 105 (Fig. 63 B), 106, 215, 348 U. macrocarpa Arn., 177 U. melaxantha Ach., 346 U. plicata Web., 359 U. Taylori Hook., 104

Usneaceae, 299, 311, 339

Vaillant, 6

Vallot, 253

Valsa Fr., 317

Varicellaria Nyl., 337 V. microsticta Nyl., 77, 92, 187 (Fig. 126)

Variolaria Ach. (see Pertusaria), 64, 171, 237

Vaucheria sessilis DC., 65 (Fig. 34)

Ventenat, 21

Verrucaria Web. (non Pers.), 9, 174, 200, 275, 314, 364 V. aethiobola Wahlenb., 391, 392 V. anceps Koerb., 377 V. aquatilis Mudd, 383 V. calciseda DC., 176, 215, 219, 241, 373, 398 V. Dufourii DC., 173 V. fuscella Ach., 373 V. Hoffmanni Hepp; f. purpurascens Arn., 251 V. hydrela Ach., 391, 392 V. lecideoides Koerb., 373 V. maculiformis Krempelh., 379 V. margacea Wahlenb., 391, 392 V. maura Wahlenb., 245, 383, 384, 386 V. memnonia Flot., 383 V. microspora Nyl., 256, 383, 386 V. mucosa Wahlenb., 73, 383 V. muralis Ach., 30, 46 (Fig. 14), 70, 243, 255, 361, 393 V. nigrescens Pers., 56, 254, 369, 377, 392 V. papillosa Ach., 377 V. prominula Nyl., 383 V. rupestris Schrad., 215, 243, 361 V. scotina Wedd., 383 V. striatula Wahlenb., 383 V. viridula Ach., 391

Verrucariaceae, 249, 309, 314, 353, 367

Verrucarites geanthricis Goepp., 354

Verrucula Stein., 265, 276 V. aegyptica Stein., 276 V. cahirensis Stein., 276

Visiani, 405

Volkard, 228, 410

Vouaux, 267

Wahlberg, 11, 168

Wahrlich, 51

Wainio, 31, 48, 70, 112, 114, 118, 120, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 144, 153, 159, 163, 166, 175, 177, 179, 188, 191, 240, 276, 277, 292, 294, 308, 344, 346, 348, 411

Waite, 270

Wallroth, xx, 13, 21, 22, 123, 133, 142, 156, 192, 305

Ward, Marshall, 35, 42, 59

Watson, Sir W., 8

Watson, 365, 373, 385

Watt, 403

Weber, 1, 9

Weddell, 252, 379

Wehmer, 220

Weir, 239

West, G. F., 52, 54, 55, 56

West, W., 225, 233, 357, 374

Wester, 211

Westring, 412

Wettstein, 45

Wheldon, 398

Wheldon and Wilson, 360, 370, 373, 374, 379, 384, 385, 387, 391, 392

Wiesner, 211, 241, 244

Wilde, 395

Wille, 28

Willemet, 10, 401, 415

Wilson, 350

Winter, 30, 138, 263

Winterstein, 209

Wisselingh, 211

Withering, 9

Wolff, 124, 163, 170, 172, 176

Woodward, 152

Woronin, 28

Woronina Cornu, 261

Xanthocapsa (Sect. of gloeocapsa), 52, 63, 284, 332, 373

Xanthoria Th. Fr., 166, 246 X. lychnea Th. Fr., 233, 252, 365, 417 X. parietina Th. Fr., 3, 22, 24, 27, 28, 38, 42, 48 (Fig. 15), 50, 56, 65, 67 (Fig. 36), 86, 164, 176, 189, 195, 200, 224, 225, 227, 231, 232, 241, 242, 253, 269, 270, 301, 341, 348, 351, 360, 369, 373, 376, 380, 383, 384, 386, 397, 406, 416, 418 X. polycarpa Oliv., 365, 390

Xylaria Hill, 12, 421

Xylographa Fr., 278, 322 X. spilomatica Th. Fr., 145

Xyloschistes Wain., 322

Zahlbruckner, A., 19, 59, 60, 66, 69, 275, 284, 308, 335, 413

Zopf, 19, 43, 108, 151, 188, 213, 221, 233, 238, 246, 264, 265, 266, 268, 270, 395, 396, 398, 400, 412, 417

Zukal, 18, 26, 38, 61, 68, 70, 82, 128, 129, 130, 163, 179, 187, 215, 219, 230, 237, 244, 267, 268, 271, 313, 395

Zwelser, 419

CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY J. B. PEACE, M.A., AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

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