Section 120 of the Factory Code; (2) Report by the Imperial Health Office

on the practicability of substitutes for lead; (3) exclusion of lead colours from use in the painting of public buildings; and (4) treatment of lead poisoning by the State Insurance Office as an accident entitling to compensation.

These demands were supported by the central office of the Society for Promoting the Welfare of Workers, which had as far back as its seventh conference in 1898 occupied itself with the question of dangerous trades and especially, at its conference in 1905, taken up the subject of the protection of workers against industrial poisoning.

In Germany these efforts resulted in the passage of a number of Imperial Regulations for separate lead industries.

In other countries similar action was set on foot. In Austria, where the subject is of special importance in view of the part played by lead in the home industries, the Government undertook to improve the conditions in industries attended with risk of lead poisoning. For this purpose the Statistical Office of the Ministry of Commerce and Labour has, since 1904, carried out extensive inquiries into lead and zinc smelting works, paint and colour factories, the painting and varnishing trades, letterpress printing, and the ceramic industry. The results are contained in the volume ‘Lead Poisoning in Smelting Works and Industries Generally’ (published by Hölder, Vienna).

As in Germany and Austria, so also in Great Britain, France, Switzerland, Belgium, and the Netherlands, regulations in various lead industries were enforced after previous official inquiry and report.

A general code, however, affecting all lead industries has only been published in one or two states. And yet this would, in my opinion, be of very great practical value as it is hardly possible to regulate each single branch of industry.

In Germany the Regulations dated May 26, 1903, dealing with lead colours are certainly comprehensive, but relate primarily to paint factories, and are not, therefore, a general Order in the sense indicated. In Saxony the decree of June 27, 1901, made notification of lead poisoning compulsory, and in the subsequent decree of April 16, 1909, prescribed general measures against lead poisoning. In Switzerland single cantons have made general regulations. In France, by a decree dated April 23, 1908 (in pursuance of the general law of June 12, 1893), all industries attended with risk of lead poisoning were brought under Regulation.

We give the provisions of this interesting decree, as it is a good example of the kind of Regulations we have in mind.

DECREE OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC (APRIL 23, 1908) RELATING TO CERTAIN INDUSTRIES IN WHICH LEAD IS USED

1. In the lead industries hereinafter mentioned, viz.: smelting, cupellation of argentiferous lead, manufacture of accumulators, glass-making, manufacture and use of lead enamels, manufacture of pottery, decoration of porcelain or faience, ceramic chromo-lithography, manufacture of lead alloys, oxides, salts and colours—employers, directors or managers are required, apart from the general measures prescribed by the Decree of 29 November, 1904, to take special measures for protection and health as set forth in the following sections.

2. Lead melting pots shall be erected in an airy place separated from the other workrooms.

Hoods or other means for the effectual removal of fumes shall be provided:—

(a) Over the openings for the run of lead and slag in lead smelting.

(b) Before the furnace doors in the manufacture of lead oxides.

(c) Above the pots for melting lead or its alloys, in the other industries enumerated in Section 1.

3. All work with oxides and other compounds of lead capable of producing dust shall be done as far as possible when in a damp condition.

When this work cannot be done in the presence of water or other liquid, it shall be carried out by mechanical means, in covered air-tight apparatus.

If it is impossible to conform to the requirements of either of the first two paragraphs of this section, the work shall be done under a strong draught so arranged that the harmful products may be intercepted by apparatus suitably placed.

Finally, if none of these systems is possible the workmen shall be supplied with respirators.

4. Oxides and other compounds of lead, whether dry or damp, in suspension or solution, shall not be handled with the bare hand. The employer shall at his own expense provide the workers in these operations with either gloves made of impervious material such as indiarubber, or suitable appliances, and shall cause them to be kept in good repair and frequently cleaned.

5. Tables on which these products are handled shall be covered with some impervious material, kept in a perfectly water-tight condition.

The same requirement applies to the floors of the workrooms, which shall also be kept damp.

The floor shall be slightly sloped towards a water-tight receptacle for collecting the lead substances which are washed down.

The work shall be so arranged that there shall be no splashing. The tables, floors and walls shall be washed at least once a week.

6. Without prejudice to the requirements of section 3, the grinding and mixing of lead products, and the use of them in dusting shall be effected in special places with active ventilation.

If the materials cannot be damped, the workers shall be provided with respirators.

7. Pottery shall not be dipped with bare hands in solutions containing litharge, red lead, galena or white lead in suspension.

8. No food or drink shall be brought into the works.

9. Employers shall, at their own expense, provide and maintain for the use of the workers, overalls or clothing for use during work only, in addition to gloves and respirators.

10. In a part of the building separated from the workrooms, there shall be provided for the use of the workers exposed to lead dust or fumes, a cloak room and lavatory kept in good order, provided with basins or taps in sufficient number, a plentiful supply of water, soap and a towel for each worker replaced at least once a week.

The cloak rooms shall be provided with cupboards or drawers with locks or padlocks, the ordinary clothing being kept apart from the working clothes.

11. A warm bath or shower bath shall be provided each week for the workers exposed to lead dust or fumes.

A warm bath or shower bath shall be provided every day after work, for each worker employed, either in emptying or cleaning the condensing chambers and flues, in repairing furnaces in lead works, in carrying lead corrosions from the beds in white lead factories, in packing red lead, in grinding lead enamels and in dry dusting.

12. Employers are required to exhibit, in a conspicuous position in the works, regulations imposing on the workers the following obligations:—

To use the appliances, gloves, respirators, and working clothes placed at their disposal.

Not to bring into the works either food or drink.

To pay great care, before each meal, to the cleanliness of the mouth, nose, and hands.

To take the baths weekly or daily as provided in section 11.

13. The Minister of Labour may, by Order made with the advice of the Consultative Committee for Arts and Manufactures, exempt an establishment for a specified period, from all or part of the requirements of Regs. 2ᵃ, 2ᵇ, 2ᶜ, 5² and 6¹ in any case where it is found that observance of these requirements is practically impossible, and that the health and safety of the workers are assured by conditions at least equivalent to those prescribed in the present Order.

14. Subject to additional postponements which may be granted by the Minister in pursuance of Section 6 of the Act of 12th June, 1893 (as amended by that of 11th July, 1903), the delay required for the carrying out of the alterations necessitated by the present Decree is limited to one year from the date of its publication.

15. The Ministry of Labour is charged with the administration of this Decree.

This decree was supplemented by further noteworthy additions requiring medical supervision in lead industries as follows:

DECREE OF DECEMBER 28, 1909, ORGANISING MEDICAL SERVICE IN INDUSTRIES EXPOSING THE WORKERS TO RISK OF LEAD POISONING

1. In premises in which the processes enumerated in Regulation 1 of the Decree of April 23, 1908, are carried on medical attendance as prescribed below shall be provided.

2. A surgeon appointed by the occupier shall examine the workers and enter the results of examination required in Regulations 3 and 4. The examinations shall be paid for by the occupier.

3. No person shall be employed in work mentioned in Regulation 1 of the Decree of April 23, 1908, without a certificate from the surgeon stating that he is free from symptoms of lead poisoning and of illness which might render him specially susceptible.

4. No worker shall remain at the same employment unless the certificate is renewed one month after commencement of employment and subsequently at quarterly intervals.

In addition to the periodical examination the occupier shall give an order on the surgeon to every workman declaring himself to be ill from his employment or who desires to undergo medical examination.

5. A special Register open to the Factory Inspector shall be kept containing the following particulars of each worker:

(1) Dates and duration of absence on account of illness of any kind;

(2) Dates of medical certificates for such illness, the notes made by the surgeon and the name of the surgeon furnishing them;

(3) Instructions given by the appointed surgeon in pursuance of Regulations 3 and 4 above.

Lead Smelting Works

(See also pp. 122-31)

As the fumes in lead smelting works contain a high proportion of lead, all apparatus, especially furnaces and working doors, should be provided with efficient exhaust ventilation and all flues, furnaces, and other apparatus be as airtight as possible. Where lead dust is created exhaust ventilation locally applied is necessary. Two of the most important preventive measures are personal cleanliness and alternation of employment. Dust arising in the furnaces and borne along by the furnace gases together with arsenical fumes and dust must be deposited in flues or chambers.

In view of the importance of proper instruction of smelters as regards the danger we quote the warning note prepared by the Institute for Industrial Hygiene, Frankfurt a.-M., which deserves wide circulation.

LEAD LEAFLET FOR SMELTERS

How does Lead Poisoning arise?

The danger of lead poisoning in lead, spelter and other smelting premises can be avoided if due care is observed.

Lead poisoning occurs when lead enters the system. This takes place by breathing dust and fume containing lead, or by eating and drinking, smoking, snuff taking and tobacco chewing if food or tobacco is taken into the mouth with dirty hands and dirty face and beard.

No one is immune from lead. Lead accumulates in the body of careless persons and he who is not sick to-day can be so to-morrow or after weeks or months.

How can Plumbism be avoided?

All smelters must observe cleanliness. In this respect they should see to the following points:

1. It is to their interest to see that the exhaust ventilation is kept in order and that the Special Rules or Regulations are exactly followed. Further, special clothing should be worn, the mouth and nose should be covered, and the floors sprinkled.

2. It is especially important that in intervals and at the close of work the mouth, face, beard, and hands should be carefully cleaned. Food should not be eaten or the premises left without putting on fresh clothes and thoroughly washing or, still better, bathing. When drinking, the edge of the drinking glass should not be fingered with dirty hands. Especially important is it that the teeth should be cleaned and the mouth washed out.

3. During work smoking, snuff taking, and tobacco chewing, which invariably convey lead into the mouth, should be given up, as it is impossible to prevent the hands getting contaminated with lead. Lighting the pipe with glowing lead ashes is in the highest degree dangerous from the risk of inhaling lead fume. The body must be strengthened to withstand the action of lead. Moderation in drinking, especially avoidance of spirits, should be observed. Alcoholic subjects succumb to lead poisoning much more readily than the temperate.

Food should be abundant and rich in fat, for example milk and bacon. Thick soups are excellent before work. Work should never be begun on an empty stomach. And lastly as much fresh air as possible. Walking, athletics, work in the garden and field will help to keep off many an attack. If anyone thinks that he is suffering from lead poisoning he should at once in his own and his family’s interest see the doctor of his sick club.

The following are the

GERMAN IMPERIAL REGULATIONS FOR LEAD SMELTING WORKS, DATED JUNE 16, 1905

General Regulations

1. Workrooms in which lead ores are roasted, sintered, or smelted, pig lead produced and submitted to further treatment, distillation of rich lead (bullion cupellation) litharge, red lead, or other oxides of lead prepared, ground or sieved, stored or packed, or zinc skimmings distilled, shall be roomy, high, and so arranged that a sufficient constant exchange of air takes place. They shall be provided with a level and solid floor to allow of easy removal of dust by a moist method.

The walls shall be smooth so as to prevent collection of dust; they shall be either washed down or lime washed at least once a year.

Provided that this shall not apply in the case of calcining sheds with wooden walls.

2. An abundant supply of good drinking water, protected against contamination from dust, shall be provided for the workers on the furnaces and smelting pots, and in such close proximity to them, that they can obtain it at any time without having to go into the open air.

Arrangements for sprinkling the floors shall be provided near the furnaces. The floors of the rooms mentioned in paragraph 1 shall be wet cleansed at least once daily.

3. Prepared (i.e. concentrated) lead ores and leady smelting products, unless moist, shall not be crushed except in an apparatus so arranged as to prevent as far as possible penetration of dust into the workrooms.

Provided that this shall not apply to calcined material from converters.

Sacks in which lead ores and materials containing lead have been packed shall not be freed from dust and cleaned except in a dust-proof apparatus or by washing.

4. Materials containing lead for charging the blast-furnaces, if they are oxides and form dust, shall be damped before they are mixed with other materials, stocked on the feeding floor, or charged into the blast-furnaces.

Provided that this shall not apply in the case of calcined material from converters.

5. Dust, gases, and lead fumes, escaping from furnaces, and converters, tapping spouts, tapping pots, drain sump, slag pots, slag cars, or slag channels, and from glowing residues taken from the furnaces, shall be caught as near as possible to the point of origin and removed harmlessly.

Dust collecting chambers, flues, as well as furnaces which have been ‘blown down,’ shall not be entered by workmen unless sufficiently cooled and ventilated.

Special Regulations for such parts of a factory where lead colours are prepared

6. In grinding, sieving and packing dry leady materials, in charging, and emptying litharge and red lead furnaces, in collecting the red lead and similar operations in which leady dust is developed, exhaust arrangements shall be provided for preventing the entrance of dust into the workrooms.

7. Apparatus producing leady dust, if their construction and manner of use does not effectually prevent evolution of dust, shall have all cracks protected by thick layers of felt or woollen material, or by similar means, so as to prevent the entrance of dust into the workrooms.

Apparatus of this character shall be provided with arrangements for preventing compression of air in them. They shall only be opened when the dust in them shall have completely settled, and they are absolutely cool.

Special arrangements in force for the distillation of zinc skimmings

8. Proposed new furnaces for the distillation of zinc skimmings (for which according to pars. 16 and 25 of the Industrial Code a special permission is required) shall be so arranged that (1) there shall be at least a clear space of 10 feet in front of the charging opening; (2) any passages under the distillation rooms shall be roomy, at least 11½ feet high in the centre, light and airy.

9. Dust, gases, and fumes arising from the zinc skimmings distillation furnaces shall be collected as near as possible to the point of origin, and carried outside the smelting room.

The entrance of gases from the fires into the smelting room shall be prevented as far as possible by suitable arrangements for drawing them off.

10. Sieving and packing of by-products obtained in the distillation of zinc skimmings (poussière, flue dust) shall not be done except in a special room separated from the other workrooms, and complying with the requirements of Reg. 1.

Sieving shall only be done in an apparatus so constructed that dust shall not escape.

Employment of workers.

11. Women and young persons shall not be employed or permitted in rooms mentioned in Reg. 1, in flue dust chambers, or dust flues, or in the removal of flue dust.

12. No person shall be newly employed in rooms mentioned in Reg. 1, in flue dust chambers, or dust flues, or in the transport of flue dust, without a certificate of fitness from the surgeon appointed by the higher authorities.

These certificates shall be collected and shown to the Factory Inspector and Appointed Surgeon on request.

13. No person shall be employed in charging blast furnaces, apart from mere labouring work on the floors, for more than eight hours daily. The same shall apply in the case of workmen employed in the inside of furnaces when cool, or in emptying flue dust chambers, or dust flues which contain wet flue dust.

No person shall be employed in cleaning out, from inside, flue dust chambers, or dust flues containing dry flue dust for more than four hours daily; and including emptying and work of transport of this kind altogether no longer than eight hours daily.

Other workers in rooms specified in Reg. 1 shall not work more than 10 hours in 24, exclusive of mealtimes.

Exception to this is allowed in the case of those workers who are employed for the purpose of a weekly change of shift, and for whom exception as to Sunday employment is permitted by Imperial Decree.

Clothing, overalls, lavatory accommodation, &c.

14. The occupier shall provide for all persons employed in cleaning out flue dust chambers, dust flues, repairing of cooled furnaces, grinding, sieving and packing of litharge, red lead, or other lead colours, complete suits of working clothes, including caps and respirators.

15. Work with lead salts in solution shall not be done except by workers who either grease their hands or are provided with impermeable gloves.

16. The suit of clothes, or overalls, provided in Regs. 14 and 15, respirators and gloves, shall be provided in sufficient amount and in proper condition. The occupier shall see that they are always suitable for their purpose, and are not worn except by those workers for whom they are intended; and that they, at stated intervals (the overalls at least once a week, the respirators and gloves prior to use), are cleaned, and during the time that they are not in use are kept in a place specially reserved for each article.

17. A lavatory and cloak room shall be provided for the use of the workmen in a part of the building free from dust. Separate from it there shall be a dining-room. These rooms must be kept free from dust and be warmed during the winter.

In a suitable place provision shall be made for warming the workers’ food.

Water, soap, and towels, and arrangements for keeping separate the overalls from other clothing taken off before the commencement of work shall be provided in sufficient amount in the lavatory and cloak room.

The occupier shall afford opportunity for persons engaged in cleaning out flue dust chambers, dust flues, and the cooled furnaces, to take a bath daily after the end of the work, and for those handling oxides of lead, at least once a week, during working hours inside the works. The bathroom shall be warmed during the winter.

18. The occupier shall place the supervision of the health of the workers in the hands of a surgeon, appointed by the higher authorities for this purpose, whose name shall be sent to the Inspector of Factories. The surgeon shall examine the workers at least once a month in the factory, with a view to the detection of symptoms of lead poisoning.

The occupier shall not employ persons suspected by the surgeon of having contracted lead poisoning in the processes mentioned in Reg. 1 or in cleaning out flue dust chambers, dust flues, or furnaces when cold, or transport of the flue dust, until they are quite well. Those who appear peculiarly susceptible shall be permanently suspended from working in these processes.

19. The Health Register shall be shown to the Factory Inspector and Appointed Surgeon on demand. (Similar to Reg. 15 of Spelter Regulations.)

20. The occupier shall require the workers to subscribe to the following conditions:—

(1) Food must not be taken into the workrooms. Meals may only be taken outside the workrooms.

(2) Workmen must only enter the meal room to take their meals or leave the factory, after they have taken off their overalls and carefully washed their face and hands.

(3) Workmen must use the overalls, respirators and gloves in those workrooms and for the particular processes for which they are given them.

(4) Cigar and cigarette smoking during work is forbidden.

(5) A bath in the factory must be taken every day at the close of their work by those engaged in the emptying and cleaning of flue dust chambers, flues, and furnaces when cold, and by those employed on oxides of lead once a week.

Provided that this shall not apply in the case of workmen exempted by the appointed surgeon.

Workers contravening these orders will be liable to dismissal without further notice.

21. In every workroom, as well as in the cloak room and meal room, there shall be posted up by the occupier, in a conspicuous place and in clear characters, a notice of these regulations.

The occupier is responsible for seeing that the requirement of Reg. 20 (1) is obeyed. He shall make a manager or foreman responsible for the precise carrying out of Reg. 20 (1) (2) and (5). The person thus made responsible shall see to the carrying out of the regulations and for the exercise of necessary care as prescribed in par. 151 of the Factory Act.

22. No work in a lead smelting works shall be commenced until notice of its erection has been sent to the Factory Inspector. After receipt of the notice he shall personally visit to see whether the arrangements are in accordance with these regulations.

23. These regulations come into force on 1st January, 1906. Where structural alterations are necessary for the carrying out of Regs. 1, 5 (1), 6, 9, 10 and 17, the higher authorities may allow an extension of time to a date not later than January 1st, 1908.

If it seems necessary on strong grounds of public interest, the Council (Bundesrath) may extend the time in particular works until 1st January, 1913, and until then allow exceptions from the regulations as regards Reg. 13 (1) and (2).

Accumulator Factories

REGULATIONS DATED NOVEMBER 21, 1903, MADE BY THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF ELECTRIC ACCUMULATORS

Whereas the manufacture of electric accumulators has been certified in pursuance of Section 79 of the Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, to be dangerous;

I hereby, in pursuance of the powers conferred on me by that Act, make the following regulations, and direct that they shall apply to all factories and workshops or parts thereof in which electric accumulators are manufactured.

Definitions.—In these Regulations ‘lead process’ means pasting, casting, lead burning, or any work involving contact with dry compounds of lead.

Any approval given by the Chief Inspector of Factories in pursuance of these Regulations shall be given in writing, and may at any time be revoked by notice in writing signed by him.

Duties of Occupier

1. Ventilation.—Every room in which casting, pasting or lead burning is carried on shall contain at least 500 cubic feet of air space for each person employed therein, and in computing this air space, no height above 14 feet shall be taken into account.

These rooms and that in which the plates are formed shall be capable of through ventilation. They shall be provided with windows made to open.

2. Separation of processes.—Each of the following processes shall be carried on in such manner and under such conditions as to secure effectual separation from one another and from any other process:

(a) Manipulation of dry compounds of lead;

(b) Pasting;

(c) Formation, and lead burning necessarily carried on therewith;

(d.) Melting down of old plates.

Provided that manipulation of dry compounds of lead carried on as in Regulation 5 (b) need not be separated from pasting.

3. Floors.—The floors of the rooms in which manipulation of dry compounds of lead or pasting is carried on shall be of cement or similar impervious material, and shall be kept constantly moist while work is being done.

The floors of these rooms shall be washed with a hose pipe daily.

4. Melting pots.—Every melting pot shall be covered with a hood and shaft so arranged as to remove the fumes and hot air from the workrooms.

Lead ashes and old plates shall be kept in receptacles especially provided for the purpose.

5. Manipulation of dry compounds of lead.—Manipulation of dry compounds of lead in the mixing of the paste or other processes, shall not be done except (a) in an apparatus so closed, or so arranged with an exhaust draught, as to prevent the escape of dust into the work room: or (b) at a bench provided with (1) efficient exhaust draught and air guide so arranged as to draw the dust away from the worker, and (2) a grating on which each receptacle of the compound of lead in use at the time shall stand.

6. Covering of benches.—The benches at which pasting is done shall be covered with sheet lead or other impervious material, and shall have raised edges.

7. Prohibition of employment.—No woman, young person, or child shall be employed in the manipulation of dry compounds of lead or in pasting.

8. (a) Appointed Surgeon.—A duly qualified medical practitioner (in these Regulations referred to as the ‘Appointed Surgeon’) who may be the Certifying Surgeon, shall be appointed by the occupier, such appointment unless held by the Certifying Surgeon to be subject to the approval of the Chief Inspector of Factories.

(b) Medical examination.—Every person employed in a lead process shall be examined once a month by the Appointed Surgeon, who shall have power to suspend from employment in any lead process.

(c) No person after such suspension shall be employed in a lead process without written sanction entered in the Health Register by the Appointed Surgeon. It shall be sufficient compliance with this regulation for a written certificate to be given by the Appointed Surgeon and attached to the Health Register, such certificate to be replaced by a proper entry in the Health Register at the Appointed Surgeon’s next visit.

(d) Health Register.—A Health Register in a form approved by the Chief Inspector of Factories shall be kept, and shall contain a list of all persons employed in lead processes. The Appointed Surgeon will enter in the Health Register the dates and results of his examinations of the persons employed and particulars of any directions given by him. He shall on a prescribed form furnish to the Chief Inspector of Factories on the 1st day of January in each year a list of the persons suspended by him during the previous year, the cause and duration of such suspension, and the number of examinations made.

The Health Register shall be produced at any time when required by H.M. Inspectors of Factories or by the Certifying Surgeon or by the Appointed Surgeon.

9. Overalls.—Overalls shall be provided for all persons employed in manipulating dry compounds of lead or in pasting.

The overalls shall be washed or renewed once every week.

10. Cloak and dining rooms.—The occupier shall provide and maintain:

(a) a cloak room in which workers can deposit clothing put off during working hours. Separate and suitable arrangements shall be made for the storage of the overalls required in Regulation 9.

(b) a dining room unless the factory is closed during meal hours.

11. Food, &c.—No person shall be allowed to introduce, keep, prepare or partake of any food, drink, or tobacco, in any room in which a lead process is carried on. Suitable provision shall be made for the deposit of food brought by the workers.

This regulation shall not apply to any sanitary drink provided by the occupier and approved by the Appointed Surgeon.

12. Washing.—The occupier shall provide and maintain for the use of the persons employed in lead processes a lavatory, with soap, nail brushes, towels, and at least one lavatory basin for every five such persons. Each such basin shall be provided with a waste pipe, or the basins shall be placed on a trough fitted with a waste pipe. There shall be a constant supply of hot and cold water laid on to each basin.

Or, in the place of basins the occupier shall provide and maintain troughs of enamel or similar smooth impervious material, in good repair, of a total length of two feet for every five persons employed, fitted with waste pipes, and without plugs, with a sufficient supply of warm water constantly available.

The lavatory shall be kept thoroughly cleansed and shall be supplied with a sufficient quantity of clean towels once every day.

13. Before each meal and before the end of the day’s work, at least ten minutes, in addition to the regular meal times, shall be allowed for washing to each person who has been employed in the manipulation of dry compounds of lead or in pasting.

Provided that if the lavatory accommodation specially reserved for such persons exceeds that required by Regulation 12, the time allowance may be proportionately reduced, and that if there be one basin or two feet of trough for each such person this Regulation shall not apply.

14. Baths.—Sufficient bath accommodation shall be provided for all persons engaged in the manipulation of dry compounds of lead or in pasting, with hot and cold water laid on, and a sufficient supply of soap and towels.

This rule shall not apply if in consideration of the special circumstances of any particular case, the Chief Inspector of Factories approves the use of local public baths when conveniently near, under the conditions (if any) named in such approval.

15. Cleaning.—The floors and benches of each workroom shall be thoroughly cleansed daily, at a time when no other work is being carried on in the room.

Duties of Persons Employed

16. Medical examination.—All persons employed in lead processes shall present themselves at the appointed times for examination by the Appointed Surgeon as provided in Regulation 8.

No person after suspension shall work in a lead process, in any factory or workshop in which electric accumulators are manufactured, without written sanction entered in the Health Register by the Appointed Surgeon.

17. Overalls.—Every person employed in the manipulation of dry compounds of lead or in pasting shall wear the overalls provided under Regulation 9. The overalls, when not being worn, and clothing put off during working hours, shall be deposited in the places provided under Regulation 10.

18. Food, &c.—No person shall introduce, keep, prepare, or partake of any food, drink (other than any sanitary drink provided by the occupier and approved by the Appointed Surgeon), or tobacco in any room in which a lead process is carried on.

19. Washing.—No person employed in a lead process shall leave the premises or partake of meals without previously and carefully cleaning and washing the hands.

20. Baths.—Every person employed in the manipulation of dry compounds of lead or in pasting shall take a bath at least once a week.

21. Interference with safety appliances.—No person shall in any way interfere, without the concurrence of the occupier or manager, with the means and appliances provided for the removal of the dust or fumes, and for the carrying out of these Regulations.

These Regulations shall come into force on the 1st day of January, 1904.

White Lead

(See also pp. 131 and 132)

In the manufacture of white lead processes which create dust are specially dangerous, namely, emptying the corrosion chambers, drying and grinding, transport of the material in the form of powder, and packing. The following measures are called for: emptying the chambers should only be done by men wearing respirators or equipped with breathing helmets after preliminary damping of the corrosions by means of a spray. Use of a vacuum cleaning apparatus suggests itself. Drying should be done as far as possible in stoves charged mechanically, the temperature in which can be watched from the outside; grinding must be done in closed and ventilated mills; transport of the dried material should be effected by mechanical means or vacuum apparatus, and packing should be done in mechanical packing machines. Further, cleanliness and strict discipline are essential. Alternation of employment is advisable. The question of substitutes for white lead is referred to on p. 293.

Manufacture of red lead calls for precisely similar preventive measures. Charging and emptying the oxidising furnaces should be done under efficient exhaust ventilation. Conveyance, sifting, and grinding of the cooled material requires to be done in the same way as has been described for white lead.

In the production of chrome colours (lead chromates) besides the danger from lead the injurious action of chrome has to be borne in mind.

Regulations for white lead factories have been made in Germany, Belgium, and Great Britain. We give below the German Imperial Regulations dated May 26, 1903.

REGULATIONS FOR MANUFACTURE OF LEAD COLOURS AND LEAD PRODUCTS

(1) The following regulations apply to all premises in which lead colours or other chemical lead products (white lead, chromate of lead, masicot, litharge, minium, peroxide of lead, Cassel yellow, English yellow, Naples yellow, lead iodide, lead acetate, &c., are manufactured), or in which mixtures of lead are prepared as the principal or as a subsidiary business. They shall not apply to lead smelting works, even though processes named in paragraph (1) are carried on.

Neither shall they apply to workplaces in which manufactured colours are intimately mixed or ground in oil or varnish in connection with another industry.

(2) The workrooms in which the materials mentioned in paragraph 1 are prepared or packed shall be roomy, lofty, and so arranged that sufficient and constant exchange of air can take place.

They shall be provided with a solid and smooth floor permitting of easy removal of dust by a moist method. The floor, unless for purposes of manufacture, shall be kept constantly wet, and shall be wet cleansed at least once daily.

The walls, when not of a smooth washable surface or painted with oil, shall be whitewashed at least once a year.

(3) The entrance of lead dust, or fumes, into the workrooms shall be prevented by suitable means as far as possible. Rooms which cannot be thus protected must be so separated from other rooms that neither dust nor fumes can enter them.

(4) Lead melting pots shall be covered with a hood and shaft communicating directly or by a chimney with the open air.

(8) Grinding, sieving, and packing dry lead compounds, emptying litharge and minium furnaces, and other operations in which lead dust is generated, shall not be done except under an exhaust draught, or other efficient means for preventing the entrance of dust into the workrooms.

In the packing of colours containing only a little lead, in small amounts, or in small packages for retail purposes, exception to these regulations can be allowed by the higher authorities.

(9) Machines generating lead dust and not efficiently protected by their construction or method of use against the escape of dust, shall have all cracks occluded by means of thick layers of felt or similar material, so as to prevent the entrance of dust into the workrooms.

Machines of this kind shall be provided with arrangements preventing pressure of the air inside. They shall not be opened until they are cool, and until the dust generated has settled.

(10) Women shall not be employed in factories in which the colours specified in paragraph (1) are prepared except in work which does not expose them to the action of lead dust or fumes. Young persons shall not be employed nor be allowed on the premises in factories concerned exclusively or in great part with the preparation of lead colours or other lead compounds.

(11) No person shall be employed in rooms where the processes specified in paragraph (1) are carried on who is not provided with a certificate from a qualified surgeon stating that he is physically fit and free from disease of the lungs, kidneys, and stomach, and that he is not addicted to alcohol. This certificate shall be kept and produced on demand to the Factory Inspector or Appointed Surgeon.

(12) No person shall be employed in packing lead colours or mixtures containing lead or other lead compounds in a dry state, or with the coopering of the filled casks for more than eight hours daily. This regulation shall not apply where the packing machines are provided with effectual exhaust arrangements, or so constructed and used as effectually to prevent the escape of dust.

No person under 18 years of age shall be employed in the process mentioned in the above paragraph, but exception can be allowed in the packing of colours containing lead in small amount, or in small packages for retail purposes, on application to the higher authorities.

For the rest, no person coming into contact with lead or lead compounds shall be employed for more than 10 hours within the space of 24 hours.

(13) The occupier shall provide overalls and head-coverings for all persons coming into contact with lead or lead compounds, and suitable footwear for those emptying the oxidising chambers.

(14) The occupier shall not allow work involving exposure to dust to be performed except by workers provided with respirators or moist sponges covering the nose and mouth.

(15) The occupier shall not allow work involving contact with soluble salts of lead to be done except by workers provided with waterproof gloves or by those whose hands have previously been smeared with vaseline.

(16) The occupier shall provide the overalls, respirators, &c., mentioned in paragraphs (13) (14) and (15) for each one of the workers in sufficient number and in good condition. He shall take care that they are used only by the workers to whom they are severally assigned, and that in the intervals of work and during the time when they are not in use they shall be kept in their appointed place. Overalls shall be washed every week, and the respirators, sponges, and gloves before each time that they are used.

(17) Lavatories and cloak rooms, and, separate from these, a mess room, shall be provided for the workers coming into contact with lead or lead compounds in a part of the works free from dust. These rooms shall be kept in a cleanly condition, free from dust, and shall be heated during the cold seasons. In the meal room or in some other suitable place there shall be means for warming food. The lavatories and cloak rooms shall be provided with water, vessels for rinsing the mouth, nail brushes for cleaning the hands and nails, soap, and towels. Arrangements shall also be made for keeping separate clothes worn during work from these taken off before the commencement of work. The occupier shall give facilities for all persons employed in emptying the oxidizing chambers to have a warm bath daily after the end of the work, and for those persons coming into contact with lead or lead compounds, twice weekly. The time for this shall be during the hours of work, and in the cold season the bath room, which must be on the factory premises, shall be heated.

(18) The occupier shall appoint a duly qualified medical practitioner, whose name shall be sent to the Inspector of Factories and to the Health Authority. He shall examine the workers at least twice every month with a view to the detection of symptoms of lead poisoning. The occupier shall not employ workers suspected of symptoms of lead poisoning in occupations exposing them to lead or lead compounds until they have completely recovered. Those who appear peculiarly susceptible shall be suspended permanently from work.

(19) The occupier shall keep a book, or make some official responsible for its keeping, recording any change in the personnel employed in lead or lead compounds and as to their state of health. He shall be responsible for the completeness and correctness of the entries except those made by the surgeon.

The remaining regulations as to entries in the Health Register, &c., are similar to those already given in the Regulations for lead smelting works on p. 300.

Use of Lead Colours

(See also pp. 132-4)

As explained on pp. 132-134 use of lead in the painting and varnishing trades frequently causes lead poisoning. This has led to regulations in various countries having for their object partly hygienic measures and partly also limitation of colours containing lead, such as prohibition of the use of lead paints in the interior of buildings or in the painting of public buildings and of ships, &c.

The details of such regulations are seen in the German Imperial Regulations dated June 27, 1905:

ORDER OF THE IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR RELATING TO THE PROCESSES OF PAINTING, DISTEMPERING, WHITEWASHING, PLASTERING, OR VARNISHING. JUNE 27, 1906

I.—Regulations for carrying on the Industries of Painting, Distempering, Whitewashing, Plastering, or Varnishing.

Regulation 1.—In the processes of crushing, blending, mixing, and otherwise preparing white lead, other lead colours, or mixtures thereof with other substances in a dry state, the workers shall not directly handle pigment containing lead, and shall be adequately protected against the dust arising therefrom.

Regulation 2.—The process of grinding white lead with oil or varnish shall not be done by hand, but entirely by mechanical means, and in vessels so constructed that even in the process of charging them with white lead no dust shall escape into places where work is carried on.

This provision shall apply to other lead colours. Provided that such lead colours may be ground by hand by male workers over 18 years of age, if not more than one kilogram of red lead and 100 grains of other lead colours are ground by any one worker on one day.

Regulation 3.—The processes of rubbing-down and pumice-stoning dry coats of oil-colour or stopping not clearly free from lead shall not be done except after damping.

All débris produced by rubbing down and pumice-stoning shall be removed before it becomes dry.

Regulation 4.—The employer shall see that every worker who handles lead colours or mixtures thereof is provided with, and wears, during working hours, a painter’s overall or other complete suit of working clothes.

Regulation 5.—There shall be provided for all workers engaged in processes of painting, distempering, whitewashing, plastering, or varnishing, in which lead colours are used, washing utensils, nail brushes, soap and towels. If such processes are carried on in a new building or in a workshop, provision shall be made for the workers to wash in a place protected from frost, and to store their clothing in a clean place.

Regulation 6.—The employer shall inform workers, who handle lead colours or mixtures thereof, of the danger to health to which they are exposed, and shall hand them, at the commencement of employment, a copy of the accompanying leaflet (not printed with this edition), if they are not already provided with it, and also a copy of these Regulations.

II.—Regulations for the Processes of Painting, Distempering, Whitewashing, Plastering, or Varnishing when carried on in connection with another Industry.

Regulation 7.—The provisions of paragraph 6 shall apply to the employment of workers connected with another industry who are constantly or principally employed in the processes of painting, distempering, whitewashing, plastering, or varnishing, and who use, otherwise than occasionally, lead colours or mixtures thereof. The provisions of paragraphs 8-11 shall also apply if such employment is carried on in a factory or shipbuilding yard.

Regulation 8.—Special accommodation for washing and for dressing shall be provided for the workers, which accommodation shall be kept clean, heated in cold weather, and furnished with conveniences for the storage of clothing.

Regulation 9.—The employer shall issue regulations which shall be binding on the workers, and shall contain the following provisions for such workers as handle lead colour and mixtures thereof:

1. Workers shall not consume spirits in any place where work is carried on.

2. Workers shall not partake of food or drink, or leave the place of employment until they have put off their working clothes and carefully washed their hands.

3. Workers, when engaged in processes specified by the employer, shall wear working clothes.

4. Smoking cigars and cigarettes is prohibited during work.

Furthermore, it shall be set forth in the regulations that workers who, in spite of reiterated warning, contravene the foregoing provisions may be dismissed before the expiration of their contract without notice. If a code of regulations has been issued for the industry (par. 134a of the G.O.) the above indicated provisions shall be incorporated in the said code.

Regulation 10.—The employer shall entrust the supervision of the workers’ health to a duly qualified medical man approved of by the public authority, and notified to the factory inspector (par. 139b of the G.O.), and the said medical man shall examine the workers once at least in every six months for symptoms indicative of plumbism.

The employer shall not permit any worker who is suffering from plumbism or who, in the opinion of the doctor, is suspected of plumbism, to be employed in any work in which he has to handle lead colours or mixtures thereof, until he has completely recovered.

Regulation 11.—The employer shall keep or shall cause to be kept a register in which shall be recorded the state of health of the workers, and also the constitution of and changes in the staff; and he shall be responsible for the entries being complete and accurate, except in so far as they are affected by the medical man.

Then follow the regulations as to entries in the Register, as to which see the Regulations as to lead smelting works, p. 300.

Type Founding and Compositors’ Work

(See also pp. 138 and 139)

Fumes which may carry up lead dust are generated in the casting of letters. Dust arises also in setting the type. General hygienic measures are especially called for such as healthy conditions in the workrooms. Much can be done by exhaust ventilation locally applied to the type cases and to letter (mono- and linotype) casting machines. Vacuum cleaning of printing workshops and type cases is strongly advised.

As some lead poisoning in printing works is attributable to lead colours or bronze powder containing lead their use should be limited as much as possible.

The German Imperial Regulations for printing works and type foundries are as follows:

ORDER OF THE FEDERAL COUNCIL OF JULY 31ST, 1897, REGULATING LETTERPRESS PRINTING WORKS AND TYPE FOUNDRIES, IN PURSUANCE OF SECTION 120E OF THE INDUSTRIAL CODE

I. In rooms in which persons are employed in setting up type or manufacture of type or stereotype plates the following provisions apply:

1. The floor of workrooms shall not be more than a half a meter (1·64 feet) below the ground. Exceptions may only be granted by the higher administrative authority where hygienic conditions are secured by a dry area, and ample means of lighting and ventilating the rooms.

Attics may only be used as workrooms if the roof is provided with a lathe and plaster ceiling.

2. In workrooms in which the manufacture of type or stereotype plates is carried on, the number of persons shall not exceed such as would allow at least fifteen cubic meters of air space (529·5 cubic feet) to each. In the rooms in which persons are employed only in other processes, there shall be at least twelve cubic meters of air space (423·5 cubic feet) to each person.

In cases of exceptional temporary pressure the higher administrative authority may, on the application of the employer, permit a larger number in the workrooms, for at the most 30 days in the year, but not more than will allow ten cubic meters of air space (353 cubic feet) for each person.

3. The rooms shall be at least 2·60 meters (8· feet) in height where a minimum of fifteen cubic meters are allowed for each person, in other cases at least 3 meters (9·84 feet) in height.

The rooms shall be provided with windows which are sufficient in number and size to let in ample light for every part of the work. The windows shall be so constructed that they will open and admit of complete renewal of air in workrooms. Workrooms with sloping roof shall have an average height equal to the measurements given in the first paragraph of this section.

4. The rooms shall be laid with close fitting impervious floor, which can be cleared of dust by moist methods. Wooden floors shall be smoothly planed, and boards fitted to prevent penetration of moisture. All walls and ceilings shall, if they are not of a smooth washable surface or painted in oil, be limewashed once at least a year. If the walls and ceilings are of a smooth washable surface or painted in oil, they shall be washed at least once a year, and the oil paint must, if varnished, be renewed once in ten years, and if not varnished once in five years.

The compositors’ shelves and stands for type boxes shall be either closely ranged round the room on the floor, so that no dust can collect underneath, or be fitted with legs, so that the floor can be easily cleaned of dust underneath.

5. The workrooms shall be cleared and thoroughly aired once at least a day, and during the working hours means shall be taken to secure constant ventilation.

6. The melting vessel for type or stereotype metal shall be covered with a hood connected to an exhaust ventilator or chimney with sufficient draught to draw the fumes to the outer air.

Type founding and melting may only be carried on in rooms separate from other processes.

7. The rooms and fittings, particularly the walls, cornices, and stands for type, shall be thoroughly cleansed twice a year at least. The floors shall be washed or rubbed over with a damp cloth, so as to remove dust once a day at least.

8. The type boxes shall be cleansed before they are put in use, and again as often as necessary, but not less than twice at least in the year.

The boxes may only be dusted out with a bellows in the open air, and this work may not be done by young persons.

9. In every workroom spittoons filled with water and one at least for every five persons shall be provided. Workers are forbidden to spit upon the floor.

10. Sufficient washing appliances, with soap and at least one towel a week for each worker, shall be provided as near as possible to the work for compositors, cutters, and polishers.

One wash-hand basin shall be provided for every five workers, fitted with an ample supply of water.

The employer shall make strict provision for the use of the washing appliances by workers before every meal and before leaving the works.

11. Clothes put off during working hours shall either be kept outside the workroom or hung up in cupboards with closely fitting doors or curtains, which are so shut or drawn as to prevent penetration of dust.

12. Artificial means of lighting which tend to raise the temperature of the rooms shall be so arranged or such counteracting measures taken that the heat of the workrooms shall not be unduly raised.

13. The employer shall draw up rules binding on the workers which will ensure the full observance of the provisions in sections 8, 9, 10, and 11.

II. A notice shall be affixed and a copy sent to the local police authority shewing:

(a) The length, height, and breadth of the rooms.

(b) The air space in cubic measure.

(c) The number of workers permitted in each room.

A copy of Rules 1 to 13 must be affixed where it can be easily read by all persons affected.

III. Provides for the method of permitting the exceptions named above in sections 2 and 3, and makes it a condition of reduction in cubic air space for each person employed as type founder or compositor that there shall be adequate mechanical ventilation for regulating temperature and carrying off products of combustion from workrooms.

Ceramic Industry

(See also pp. 135-8.)

A complete substitute for lead in glazes seems as yet impossible on technical grounds, as glaze containing lead has qualities which cannot be obtained without its use. In small works the technique necessary for the production of leadless glazes (special kinds of stoves) cannot be expected, especially as those carrying on a small industry lack the necessary knowledge of how to be able to dispense with the use of lead glazes and substitute leadless materials without complete alteration in their methods of manufacture. And yet discontinuance or the utmost possible limitation of the use of lead glazes and colours is most urgently needed in all small ceramic workshops, as they are not in a position to put in localised exhaust ventilation, &c., which is possible in large factories. Observance of even the simplest hygienic measures can scarcely be obtained. Consequently very severe cases of lead poisoning are met with in small works. An effort in the direction of discontinuance of lead glazes was made in Bohemia, where (at the cost of the State) technical instruction was given by an expert on the preparation of leadless glazes especially in districts where the industry was carried on in the homes of the workers. This procedure, extension of which is expected, had good results.

Many have demanded, in view of the possibility of substituting leadless for lead glazes, the total prohibition of lead. Such is the view of the Dutch inspector De Vooys; Teleky and Chyzer share the view expressed so far as the small industry is concerned, since the practicability of the change has been demonstrated.

English authorities (Thorpe, Oliver) propose diminution of the lead in the glaze in such a way that on shaking with weak acid not more than a specified small quantity shall be dissolved (Thorpe test). In my opinion such a measure is hardly enough for the small industry. I do not expect much good from obligatory use of fritted glazes.

In addition to earthenware, manufacture of tiles and bricks leads not infrequently to cases of lead poisoning from use of lead glaze.

The following measures apply to the larger ceramic works. Since risk is considerable, not only in glost placing but also in grinding, ware-cleaning, &c., closed ball mills in grinding and locally applied exhaust ventilation in ware-cleaning operations, &c., must be arranged. Personal cleanliness and proper equipment of a factory in all the essentials insisted on on pp. 226-9 are important, but nothing can take the place of efficient locally applied ventilation.

Vitreous enamelling of household utensils, baths, gas stoves, signs, &c., is an analogous process as enamels containing lead may be used. Sieving on the dry powder and brushing off superfluous glaze often cause poisoning. Here generally the same preventive measures apply.

In the Netherlands, in consequence of lead poisoning in porcelain works, committees were appointed to inquire into the subject in 1901, 1902, and 1903.

File Cutting

(See also p. 140)

In file cutting the file is cut on a lead bed or a bed of an alloy of zinc and lead. The same source of poisoning occurs in other industries such as amber working. Lead poisoning among file cutters is pronounced. The best preventive measure is substitution of a bed of pure zinc for lead. The German Imperial Health Office have issued a ‘Warning notice’ for file-cutters.

LEAFLET FOR FILE-CUTTERS

The use of lead beds or of alloys of lead with other metals has repeatedly brought about lead poisoning in file-cutters. The beds also supposed to be made of zinc usually contain a considerable proportion of lead, and are thus dangerous to health.

Among file-cutters lead poisoning arises from absorption of the metal in small quantities by means of dirty hands, eating, drinking, smoking or chewing of tobacco. The consequences of this absorption are not at once noticeable. They appear only after weeks, months, or even years, according to the extent to which the lead has accumulated in the system.

How does lead poisoning show itself?—The first sign is usually a bluish-grey line on the gums called the blue line, associated with anæmia or pallor. Later symptoms are very varied. Most frequently lead colic comes on, the affected person suffering from violent cramplike pains starting from the navel; the stomach is hard and contracted; very often vomiting and constipation ensue, or, very occasionally, diarrhœa. In some cases paralysis shows itself—generally in those muscles which extend the fingers, usually affecting both arms. In exceptional cases other muscles of the arms and legs are affected. Sometimes lead poisoning manifests itself in violent pains in the joints—generally the knee, more rarely in the shoulder and elbow. In specially severe cases brain trouble supervenes—violent headache, convulsions, unconsciousness or blindness. Finally lead poisoning may set up disease of the kidneys—Bright’s disease and gout.

Women suffering from lead poisoning frequently miscarry. Children born alive may, in consequence of lead poisoning, die in their first year. Children fed at the breast are poisoned through the milk.

Apart from severe cases complicated with brain trouble, which are often fatal, persons suffering from lead poisoning generally recover if they withdraw from further contact. Recovery takes place after a few weeks, but in severe cases only after months.

The most effective preventive measures are cleanliness and temperance. Persons who, without being drunkards, are accustomed to take spirits in quantity are more likely to succumb than the abstemious. Spirits should not be taken during working hours. In regard to cleanliness, file-cutters using lead beds should be especially careful and observe the following rules:

1. Since soiling the hands with lead cannot be entirely avoided, smoking and chewing tobacco during work should be given up.

2. Workers should only take food and drink or leave the works after thoroughly washing the hands with soap—if possible with pumice stone; if drinking during work cannot be wholly given up the edges of the drinking vessels ought not to be touched by the hands.

If a file-cutter falls ill in spite of precautions with symptoms pointing to lead poisoning he should, in his own and his family’s interest, at once consult a doctor, telling him that he has been working with a lead bed.

Other Industries in which Lead is used

In cutting precious stones with use of lead discs lead poisoning frequently occurs, especially where this trade, as in some parts of Bohemia, is carried on as a home industry. The authorities have required substitution of carborundum (silicon carbide) for lead discs. As, therefore, an efficient substitute is possible, use of lead should be prohibited. Similarly, use of lead in the making of musical instruments should, if possible, be discontinued. Brass pipes in musical instrument making are filled with lead to facilitate hammering and bending, and in this way poisoning has occurred. In numerous other industries where the use of lead cannot be avoided, and where consequently the danger must be present, as, for instance, in lead melting, soldering, lead rolling, stamping, pressing, &c., in the manufacture of lead piping, shot, wire, bottle capsules, foil, toys, and many other articles, general preventive measures should be carefully carried out. Melting of lead and lead alloys should be carried out only under efficient exhaust ventilation. In larger works where dust is generated this should be drawn away at the point where it is produced. This applies also to processes in the chemical industries where lead or lead compounds are used, seeing that no substitute is possible.

Zinc, Brass-casting, Metal Pickling, Galvanising

(See also pp. 151 and 182)

In zinc smelting account has to be taken of fumes which may contain lead, zinc, arsenic, sulphur dioxide, and carbonic oxide. Metallic fumes require to be condensed—a procedure in harmony with economic interests. This is effected in a technically arranged condensing system, consisting of a condenser and prolong, in which the fumes are given as large a space as possible in which to condense and cool. In order to prevent the entry of fumes into the shed when removing distillation residues, hoods should be arranged over the front of the furnace through which the gases can be conducted into the main chimney stack or be drawn away by a fan; in addition the residue should fall into trolleys which must either be covered at once or placed under a closely fitting hood until the fuming contents are cool. As the mixing of the materials for charging and the sifting and packing of the zinc dust (poussière) may cause risk, these processes require to be carried out mechanically with application of local exhaust. Such an arrangement is shown in fig. 59 below. The material which is fed in is carried by the elevator to the sifting machine, falls into the collecting bin, and is then packed. The points at which dust can come off are connected with the exhaust and carried to the dust collector; fans carry the filtered air to the outside atmosphere.

a Charging hopper; b Distributor; c Elevator; d Sieve; e Collector; f Packing machine; g Exhaust pipe; h Worm; i Dust Collector; k Motor]

Only paragraphs 3-8 of the German Imperial Regulations dated February 6, 1900, for Spelter Works are quoted, as the remainder are on precisely similar lines to those for lead smelting works given in full on p. 300.

3. Crushing zinc ore shall not be done except in an apparatus so arranged as to prevent penetration of dust into the workroom.

4. The roasting furnaces as well as the calcining furnaces shall be provided with effective exhaust arrangements for the escaping gases. The occupier shall be responsible for their efficiency during the time the furnace is at work.

5. To avoid dust, ores intended for charging distillation furnaces shall not be stacked in front of or charged into the furnace, or mixed with other material, except in a damp condition.

This regulation shall not apply to large so-called Silesian

Retorts when in use in the zinc smelter; yet in the case of them also the Higher Authorities may require damping of the charging material if specially injurious to health.

6. Dust, gases and vapours escaping from distillation furnaces shall be caught as near as possible to the point of origin by efficient arrangements and carried out of the smelting rooms. The entrance of the gases from the fires into the smelting room shall be prevented as far as possible by suitable arrangements for drawing them off.

7. Residues shall not be drawn into the smelting room; they shall be caught in closed channels under the furnaces and emptied from these channels at once into waggons placed in passages beneath the distillation rooms.

This regulation (where the Higher Authorities approve) shall not apply to existing plants, should it be impossible to make the arrangements mentioned in Reg. 1, or where such additions could only be added by rebuilding at a prohibitive cost.

8. Sieving and packing of by-products obtained by the distillation of zinc (poussière, flue dust) shall not be done except in a special room separate from other workrooms, in accordance with Reg. 1.

Sieving shall only be done in an apparatus so arranged as to prevent escape of dust.

In brass casting, in order to prevent occurrence of brass-founders’ ague, it is necessary that the zinc oxide fumes evolved should be effectively drawn away from the crucible by locally applied exhaust ventilation. General ventilation merely of the room is almost useless, as in casting the fumes rise up into the face of the pourer. Seeing that casting is carried on in different parts of the foundry, it is advisable to connect up the hoods over the moulds by means of metal piping with the exhaust system, or to arrange a flexible duct which can be moved about as occasion requires.

Dangerous acid fumes (notably nitrous fumes) are evolved in metal pickling, especially of brass articles (such as harness furniture, lamp fittings, church utensils, &c.), for the purpose of giving them a shiny or dull surface by immersion in baths of nitric, hydrochloric, or sulphuric acid. As severe and even fatal poisoning has occurred in these operations they should be conducted in isolated compartments or channels under exhaust ventilation. If the ventilation provided is mechanical an acid proof earthenware fan or an injector is necessary. The following description applies to one large works: The pickling troughs are placed in a wooden compartment closed in except for a small opening in front. To this compartment a stoneware pipe leading to a stoneware fan is connected. The nitrous fumes are drawn through the pipe and led into the lower part of an absorption tower filled with cone-shaped packing material through which water trickles from a vessel placed at the top. The greater part of the acid fumes are absorbed as they pass upwards and the water collects in a receiver below, from which it is blown by compressed air into the vessel above for utilisation again until it becomes so charged with acid that it can be used for pickling purposes.

In galvanising and tinning acid fumes, injurious acroleic vapour, and metallic fumes can arise as the metal articles (iron, copper, &c.) first require to be cleaned in an acid bath and then dipped into molten fat or molten zinc or tin. Here also the fumes should be drawn away in the manner described.

Recovery and Use of Mercury

Escape of mercury vapour and development of sulphur dioxide seriously endanger workers engaged in smelting cinnabar. The danger can be minimised by proper construction of furnaces preventing escape as far as possible of fumes and most careful condensation of the mercury in impervious and sufficiently capacious chambers and flues.

Continuous furnaces are to be preferred to those working intermittently. The system of condensing chambers and flues must offer as long a passage as possible to the fumes, and care must be taken to keep them thoroughly cool. Removal of the deposit rich in mercury from the flues is especially fraught with danger. This work should only be carried on after efficient watering by workers equipped with respirators, working suits, &c.

Use of mercury.—Mirror making by coating the glass with mercury used to be one of the most dangerous occupations. Now that a fully adequate substitute for mercury has been found in the nitrate of silver and ammonia process, use of mercury should be prohibited. As a home industry especially mirror coating with mercury should be suppressed. Fortunately the dangerous mode of production is rapidly being ousted.

The following requirements are contained in a decree of the Prussian Government dated May 18, 1889:

(1) Medical certificate on admission to employment in mirror making with use of mercury;

(2) restriction of hours to six in summer and in winter to eight daily, with a two hours’ mid-day interval;

(3) fortnightly examination of the workers;

(4) air space per person of 40 cubic meters in the coating room and 30 in the drying room, and, in both, introduction of 60 cubic meters of air per head per hour;

(5) Work to cease if the temperature of the room in summer reaches 25° C.

Measures are necessary to prevent occurrence of mercury poisoning in hatters’ furriers’ processes (preparation of rabbit fur for felt hats) in consequence of the use of nitrate of mercury. Danger arises chiefly in cutting the hair, in dressing and drying, in sorting, and also in the subsequent stages of hard felt hat manufacture. Aspiration of the dust and fluff at its point of generation, isolation of the drying rooms and prohibition of entry into them while drying is going on, are necessary. In dressing (commonly known as ‘carotting’), the nitric acid vapour requires to be drawn away. In addition strict personal hygiene, especially of the teeth, is very important. Processes involving water gilding (nowadays practised on a very small scale) should only be carried on in stoves provided with exhaust ventilation. Electroplating, fortunately, has almost entirely taken its place.

As cases of mercury poisoning have been reported from use of mercurial pumps in producing the vacuum inside electric incandescent bulbs, air pumps should be substituted for them whenever possible.

Barometer and thermometer makers may and do suffer severely if care is not taken to draw away the fumes and ensure good ventilation of the workrooms. Careless handling and the dropping of mercury on the benches make it difficult to prevent some volatilisation. Personal hygiene and especially a proper hygiene of the mouth are of the greatest importance in this class of work.

Preparation of mercury compounds in chemical factories, especially the dry processes (sublimation), as in production of cinnabar, corrosive sublimate and calomel mixing, grinding, and sublimation, require to be carried on in closed apparatus. Preparation of the substances named above in solution involves much less risk than subliming. From our point of view, therefore, the former is to preferred.

Arsenic, Arsenic Compounds, Arseniuretted Hydrogen

For arsenic works imperviousness of the system and as complete condensation as possible are necessary to prevent escape of fumes.

Respirators should be worn in manipulations with white arsenic, and such work as packing done under conditions of locally applied exhaust ventilation.

Industrial use of arsenic compounds, in view of the risk attaching to them, should be reduced as much as possible. This has sometimes been achieved by technical improvement in processes of manufacture. Thus in the colour industry, where formerly colours containing arsenic played an important rôle, coal-tar colours have taken their place, and use of arsenic even in these (as in the manufacture of fuchsin) has been replaced by nitrobenzene.

As the danger from arseniuretted hydrogen gas is especially great in processes in which acid acts on metal and either one or both of them contain arsenic, the materials, should be as free from arsenic as possible, in the production, for example, of hydrogen for soldering, in extracting metals by means of acids, in galvanic elements, in accumulator works, in the storage and transport of acids in metal vessels, and in galvanising.

In any case the workers in these industries should be warned of the danger and instructed in case of emergencies. For soldering exclusive use of hydrogen produced electrolytically and procurable in steel cylinders is advisable.

Extraction and Use of Gold and Silver

In the extraction of gold and silver by amalgamation and subsequent volatilisation of mercury there is risk of mercurial poisoning. The preventive measures necessary are similar to those for poisoning in the recovery of mercury (see p. 327).

Argyria in pearl bead blowers can be avoided by using pumps to blow the silver solution into the beads instead of the mouth.

In electroplating the possibility of poisonous fumes arising from the baths must be guarded against because hydrocyanic (prussic) acid, though only in minute quantities, may be evolved; care must be taken that the workrooms are well ventilated or the baths hooded. Careful personal hygiene is essential, for the prevention of skin diseases from which workers in electroplating often suffer.

VII

PREVENTIVE MEASURES IN OTHER TRADES

Ceramic Industry

In the glass industry use of lead, chrome, and arsenic compounds should be restricted as much as possible or allowed only under suitable precautions (exhaust ventilation, personal hygiene, &c.).

Etching on glass by means of hydrofluoric causes almost inevitably injury to the workers. Rendering the surface of glass opaque should preferably be done by sand blast. When a bath of hydrofluoric acid for etching on glass is used the fumes require to be drawn away by hoods over the baths and the work-rooms well ventilated.

Further precautionary measures are called for in view of industrial poisoning by furnace gases in various ceramic industries, as, for example, cement works, glass works, and tile works.

The following suggestions are made in the technical introduction to the Germany Factory Act for prevention of poisoning from carbonic oxide, carbon dioxide, and sulphur dioxide:

(1) Even the fixing of benches which might be used for sleeping on near the furnaces should be strictly forbidden;

(2) All furnaces which are roofed over should be provided with adequate side and roof ventilation;

(3) All gas pipes and cocks must be maintained in an impervious condition.

Manufacture and Use of Varnishes and Drying Oils

Unpleasant fumes are given off on boiling linseed oil with oxidising substances, which should be prevented by closely fitting covers and condensation of the fumes in cooling apparatus. In heating and dissolving resin for the production of varnishes the fumes evolved require to be dealt with in a similar way.

Preventive measures must be taken also in the use of quick-drying paints on ships and inside steam boilers as, owing to the rapid evaporation of the poisonous solvents—benzene, benzine and turpentine—fatalities have occurred. As a result of elaborate investigation by the inspectors of factories in Hamburg the following instructions were issued:

Quick-drying paint for ships and for preventing rust should only be used under the supervision of a person conversant with the danger to health and risk from fire.

They should only be allowed for the painting of interior surfaces after adoption of adequate precautions—free ventilation, use of smoke helmets with air conducting apparatus, and no naked lights, &c. Since use of quick-drying paints cannot easily be prohibited and the fumes from the substitutes for turpentine—benzene and other light tarry oils—exert injurious effect on man, precautionary measures are called for. Regulation of working hours is as important as provision of adequate ventilation. Workers, therefore, should be allowed proper intervals from work.

Confined spaces in the interior of ships should be adequately ventilated before, after, and during work; all persons who use the paints should have opportunity for washing given them at their work places, and should be compelled to avail themselves of these facilities; indulgence in alcohol and smoking should be prohibited; receptacles in which quick-drying paints are sold should be provided with an air-tight cover and with a warning notice as to the danger of the contents.

Paints made from petroleum fractions of low boiling-point, light coal-tar oils, turpentine oil, carbon bisulphide, and similar substances, are to be regarded as injurious to health.

Persons under eighteen, and women, should not be allowed to work with quick-drying paints.

Obligatory notification of cases of poisoning by hydrocarbons and other similar poisonings would have a good effect.

Schaefer (Inspector of Factories in Hamburg) has drawn up the following leaflet for painters, varnishers, workers in dry docks, and others engaged in painting with quick drying paints and oils:

All quick-drying paints and oils are more or less injurious to health and very inflammable, as they contain volatile substances such as benzine (naphtha, petrol ether), benzene, turpentine oil, carbon bisulphide, &c. These paints are mostly used in painting interiors of ships, boilers, machinery, apparatus, &c., and come on the market under various names, such as Black Varnish Oil, Solution, Patent Colour, Anti-corrosive, Dermatin, Acid-proof Paint, Apexior, Saxol, &c.

Even at ordinary temperatures the volatile fluids used as mediums for dry paint powders, or as a first coating, evaporate. Air filled with the fumes is not only harmful to health, but liable to explosion. Working with these paints and oils in the interior of ships, or steam boilers and the like, has repeatedly led to explosions and fatal poisoning.

Danger of Poisoning.—All persons are exposed to the danger of poisoning who use quick-drying paints in the interior of rooms or receptacles, or otherwise manipulate the paints. The warmer the room and the less ventilation there is before and during the painting, the greater the danger of poisoning. On the other hand, use of these paints in the open air is generally without effect.

Poisoning arises from inhaling the fumes of hydrocarbons. The symptoms are oppression, headache, inclination to vomit, cough, hiccough, giddiness, noises in the ears, drunken-like excitement, trembling and twitching. Inhalation of larger quantities brings on, quite suddenly and without previous warning, unconsciousness, which may last many hours and is often fatal. Except in severe cases the symptoms generally soon disappear, if the affected person withdraws from further contact with the fumes. The most effective protection therefore against poisoning is fresh air and temperance. In so far as painting with quick-drying materials is necessary in workrooms, interiors of ships, water and ballast tanks, double bottoms, bunkers, bilges, cabins, boilers and receptacles, care must be taken to ensure thorough ventilation before, after, and while the work is going on. Where no sufficient ventilation is possible these paints ought not to be used. Frequent intermission of work by a short stay in the open air is useful. When working in spaces not easily accessible, the worker should be roped.

Speaking, singing, or whistling during work favours inhalation of the fumes and is, therefore, to be avoided. Indulgence in spirits, especially during working hours, increases the danger of poisoning. Habitual drinkers should not be allowed to work at all with quick-drying paints and oils.

At the first signs of discomfort work should be stopped. An immediate stay in the open air will then usually dispel the poisonous symptoms.

If, notwithstanding this, severe symptoms develop, oxygen inhalation should be commenced forthwith and medical aid called in.

Production of Vegetable Foods and Luxuries

(See also p. 154)

Measures for the prevention of industrial poisoning have to be thought of in connection with drying processes (by smoke gases, carbon dioxide, and carbonic oxide), many processes of preserving (use of sulphur dioxide, &c.), and fermentation (accumulation of carbonic acid).

In breweries the use of kilns allowing fire gases to enter the drying-rooms formerly caused carbonic oxide and carbonic acid poisoning. The general introduction of hot air kilns provided with mechanical malt-turning apparatus should be insisted on, and is in keeping with progress in technical methods.

The accumulation of carbonic acid in the malting cellars can be prevented in the same way as in a distillery.

If ammonia is used for refrigeration, precautions are necessary so that, in the event of leakage or bursting of pipes, the workers may escape. Naturally the imperviousness of the freezing system must be guaranteed.

Oppression and danger to the health of the workers is occasionally caused by the development of gases in the coating of barrels with pitch, partly preventable by the use of pitching machines.

In the production of spirits carbonic acid poisoning can occur from accumulation of carbonic acid in the fermentation cellars. These should be thoroughly ventilated and in view of the heaviness of the gas, openings for ventilation should always be located at the floor level.

In the sulphuring of malt the following recommendations were made by the Austrian inspectors:

During the sulphuring process the room ought not to be entered (for the turning over of the malt). When the sulphur has been burnt, the drying-room must be ventilated from the outside, by opening the windows and letting in cold currents of air, until the sulphur dioxide has completely dispersed, which can be tested by holding a strip of moistened blue litmus paper at the half-opened door. If it does not turn red, turning over of the malt may be proceeded with.

As the sulphuring of hops in hop districts is done in primitive little kilns, in which the hops are spread out on a kind of gridiron and sulphur burnt below in iron pans, development of sulphur dioxide may affect the workers. The following regulations are therefore suggested for work in these kilns:

The rooms in which sulphuring takes place must be airtight, capable of being locked, and provided with arrangements which make it possible to remove the sulphur dioxide fumes before the room is entered. This can usually be done by a strong coke fire, maintained in the chimney place, which creates the necessary draught. If fans are used, it must be remembered that iron is affected and destroyed by acid gases; stoneware fans are therefore advisable.

In the production of vinegar, air escapes laden with acetic acid vapour, alcohol, lower oxidation products of alcohol, aldehyde, acetic ether, &c. Their escape can be avoided if the whole process is carried on in a closed self-acting apparatus with the advantage also that no loss occurs.

In premises for drying agricultural products (fruit, chicory, turnips) the persons employed in the drying-room are exposed to the danger of carbonic oxide poisoning from direct firing.

The following recommendations for work in drying-rooms with direct firing are taken from an Austrian decree of 1901:

The lower drying chambers, in which the real drying process is effected, should be so arranged that the objects dried in them can be removed by means of long-handled implements through a passage shut off from the drying-room. The separation of this passage can be effected by loose tin plates which can be removed as required for the work of turning or removal of the dried products, so that the worker need not come into contact with the gases.

Open fires should be so arranged that if required they can be shut off, by simple arrangements, from the drying-rooms in which the workers are temporarily occupied in carrying in, and turning, the objects to be dried, transferring the partly dried products to hotter hurdles, and emptying them when finished, in such a way that the entrance of combustion gases into the drying chambers can be completely prevented. In order, however, to prevent a back draught, arrangements must be made for simultaneous removal of the gases by pipes connected with a chimney or smoke flue. The places from which the fires are charged should, in addition, be furnished with suitably arranged openings for ventilation leading into the outer air, in order to neutralise, in case of need, any back draught from the furnaces into the rooms.

The windows of the drying chambers should be so arranged as to open both from within and without.

The floor of the roof space, or attic, which forms at the same time the ceiling of the upper drying-room, should be kept perfectly airtight, as also the openings into it through which the steam pipes pass. For this purpose the floor should be a double one and the openings or boxes into which material is thrown should have a double cover above and below. Further, situated in the highest point of the ceiling of the roof space, there should be a suitable number of openings topped by louvred turrets. In the roof space no work should be done except manipulations necessary for the charging of the hurdles with the goods to be dried. Use of the roof floor as a sleeping or living room is not permissible.

Before the workers enter the drying chambers for the purpose of turning the materials, the stove should be shut off, the gases drawn from the furnace into the chimney or flue, and at the same time the doors and windows of the drying rooms opened.

Entering of drying chambers for working purposes should only be done after a sufficient time has elapsed for removal of the air by ventilation.

Charging of the furnaces should be so arranged that they burn as low as possible before the removal of the dried materials and before subsequent work in the drying chambers. Seeing that chicory and turnip drying is done intermittently by night, a special sleeping or waiting room with free ventilation should be provided. The regulations concerning the ventilation of the workrooms are to be made known to the workers.

Cigar Industry

In order to prevent injury to health to tobacco workers the dust and fumes, especially at cutting and sifting machines, require to be drawn away by locally applied exhaust ventilation. The workrooms, moreover, must conform to hygienic requirements, especially as to cleanliness. Washing accommodation and baths are desirable, but are only likely to be provided in large works.

Wood Working

(See also p. 154)

Risk from poisonous woods can be avoided by exhaust ventilation applied to the wood-working machinery.

To lessen the danger to health in the use of methylated spirits in the polishing of wood adequate ventilation of the workrooms is necessary; drawing off the fumes by local ventilation is often impossible.

Production of Wood-pulp (Cellulose) and Paper.

In the sulphite cellulose process, sulphur dioxide may escape from the sulphur stoves or from the boilers; escape of sulphur dioxide is also possible through defective gas pipes and condensers. Gas pipes and condensers require to be quite impervious and condensation or absorption as complete as possible. The fumes escaping from the boilers should be led through pipes into closed boilers for condensation purposes; the gases not condensed here are to be led into absorption towers.

In the manufacture of paper with use of chloride of lime for bleaching chlorine can be given off in considerable quantity, requiring removal of the gases from the apparatus.

The use of poisonous colours containing lead or arsenic, and addition of lead-containing substances to the paper pulp, is now very rare.

Textile Industries.

(See also p. 156)

In the textile industry only a few manipulations are associated with serious risk of poisoning. Those engaged in carbonising are exposed to acid fumes; closed and ventilated apparatus, therefore, as far as possible, require to be used and the acid gases escaping from them should be absorbed. These requirements are fulfilled by carbonising stoves which are ventilated and connected with coke condensers. It is especially urged that only arsenic free acid be employed, as otherwise danger of poisoning by arseniuretted hydrogen may be incurred.

In the making of artificial silk, according to the Chardonnet-Cadoret process, the precautionary measures recommended in nitrating together with careful exhaustion of the ether and camphor fumes apply.

The combustion gases (containing carbonic oxide) developed in the process of singeing are harmful and require to be led away at their source.

Poisonous metallic salts, especially lead and lead-containing zinc, are used as weighting materials, in dressing or finishing, and sometimes cause symptoms among the workers. Apart from the danger to those occupied in spinning and weaving, the workers who handle these products (in the clothing trade) also run a risk from lead.

Precautionary measures are necessary in the varnishing of woven materials, as the substances employed may contain volatile poisonous solvents. If these poisonous solvents cannot be replaced by others less poisonous, carefully applied exhaust ventilation must be provided. The same holds good when carbon bisulphide, benzene, and benzine are used as solvents in the production of woven materials impregnated with indiarubber.

Employment of lead salts and other poisonous metallic salts in the glossing of woven materials, or in order to render them non-inflammable, is to be deprecated.

Cases of lead poisoning have occurred in the working-up of asbestos, as lead wire is sometimes used in the process of weaving.

To protect workers in chlorine and sulphur bleaching from poisoning by chlorine or sulphur dioxide the gases arising from the bleaching liquids should be drawn away. Use of closed bleaching apparatus, as is the case in large works, reduces the danger to a minimum. Bleaching-rooms should be connected with a powerful stoneware fan, so that they may be thoroughly aired before they are entered.

Dye Works

Industrial poisoning by dyes is, in general, rare, as the natural dyes (wood and tar dyes) are almost without exception non-poisonous. Further, the dyes are generally only used in diluted solution. Formerly the arsenic in many tar dyes caused poisoning, but now it is usually the mordants which have harmful effect. To this class belong chromic acid salts and mordants containing arsenic, antimony (tartar-emetic), and also chloride of tin. In the scraping off of layers of paint containing arsenic, arsenic dust may arise. In Turkey red dyeworks, especially sodium arsenite is used for fixing the tar dyes.

Orpiment dyes which may give off poisonous arseniuretted hydrogen gas are becoming less and less used; from the point of view of industrial hygiene, the utmost possible avoidance of the use of arsenic-containing preparations in dye works is to be recommended. Where this is not possible, strict personal hygiene must be enforced (as, for instance, application of vaseline to the skin).

FOOTNOTES

Leymann has dealt with the conditions of health in a large aniline factory in a later work which is referred to in detail in the section on the aniline industry.

Poisoning by lead, phosphorus, and arsenic contracted in a factory or Workshop has been notifiable in Great Britain and Ireland since 1895.

‘On the Nature, Uses, and Manufacture of Ferro-silicon,’ 1909, Cd. 4958.

In Great Britain section 73 of the Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, requires every medical practitioner attending on or called in to visit a patient whom he believes to be suffering from lead, phosphorus, arsenical or mercurial poisoning, or anthrax, contracted in any factory or workshop, to notify the Chief Inspector of Factories, and a similar obligation is placed on the occupier to send written notice of every case to the inspector and certifying surgeon of the district.

The table on p. 222 shows the number of reports included in returns for the years 1900-12.

Cases of acute poisoning in factories and workshops are reportable to the Inspector and certifying surgeon, under the Notice of Accidents Act, 1906, when (a) causing loss of life or (b) due to molten metal, hot liquid, explosion, escape of gas or steam, and so disabling any person as to cause absence throughout at least one whole day from his ordinary work.

The following table gives indication of the relative frequency of cases of poisoning from gases and fumes, although some were reported as accidents the result of the unconsciousness induced:

+-------------------------------+-------+------+------+------+------+ | Nature of Gas or Fumes. | 1912. | 1911.| 1910.| 1909.| 1908.| | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | +-------------------------------+-------+------+------+------+------+ |Carbon monoxide |91 (14 |64 (6 |53 (9 |53 (6 |55 (5 | | (a) Blast furnace |33 (5 |16 (2 |19 (7 |16 |26 (3 | | (b) Power (suction, | | | | | | | producer, Mond, Dowson). |19 (4 |31 (1 |25 |25 (4 |19 (2 | | (c) Coal |29 (2 | 6 (2 | 4 |11 (1 | 9 | | (d) Other |10 (3 |11 (1 | 5 (2 | 1 (1 | 1 | |Sulphuretted hydrogen | 6 | 8 (2 | 2 | 5 (2 | 8 (1 | |Carbon dioxide | 3 (2 | 1 (1 | 2 (1 | 2 (2 | 4 (3 | |Ammonia | 1 | 1 (1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | |Chlorine and hydrochloric | | | | | | | acid fumes | 3 | 5 (1 | 3 | 1 | 1 | |Nitrous fumes |12 (1 |18 (2 |11 |12 (2 | 3 (1 | |Nitro and amido derivatives of | | | | | | | benzene | 9 (1 |21 |18 | 4 | 2 | |Naphtha and benzene | 3 (1 | 1 (1 | — | 1 (1 | 2 | |Other (Sulphur dioxide, &c.) | 7 (2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 3 | +-------------------------------+-------+------+------+------+------+

The principal figures are those of all cases, fatal and non-fatal; the small figures relate to fatal cases.

Transcriber’s Note: The ‘small figures’ are given here in brackets e.g. (1.

The principal numbers relate to cases, the small figures to deaths. Fatal cases not reported in previous years are included as both cases and deaths.

Transcriber’s Note: The ‘small figures’ are given here in brackets e.g. (1.

Fischer adopts a chemical basis in his classification. His two main subdivisions are (1) inorganic and (2) organic poisons. The sub-divisions of the inorganic poisons are (a) non-metallic—chlorine, calcium chloride, hydrochloric acid, potassium chlorate, hydrofluoric acid, carbonic oxide, phosgene, carbon dioxide, cyanogen compounds, ammonia, nitrous fumes, phosphorus, phosphoretted hydrogen, arsenic compounds, antimony compounds, sulphur dioxide, sulphuric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon bisulphide, chloride of sulphur; and (b) metallic—chromic acid and chromates, manganese dioxide, sulphate of nickel, mercury and lead. The sub-divisions of (2) the organic substances are into (a) the unsaturated carbon compounds—benzene, petroleum, methyl-, ethyl-, amyl-, and allyl-alcohol, oxalic acid, formal- and acetaldehyde, acrolein, acetone, methyl-bromide and iodide, nitro-glycerin, dimethyl-sulphate and amyl acetate, and (b) the aromatic series benzene, nitro-, chloro-nitro-, dinitro-, chloro-dinitro-benzene, phenol, picric acid, phenyl-hydrazine, aniline, and certain aniline colours, para-nitraniline, pyridine, naphthalene, nitro-naphthalene, naphthlyamine, naphthol, benzidine, acridine, turpentine, and nicotine.

A Prussian Ministerial Decree, dated March 31, 1892, deals with the preparation of nitrate of mercury.

In Great Britain and Ireland the White Phosphorus Matches Prohibition Act became operative from January 1, 1910. In the United States of America a Prohibition Act became operative on July 1, 1913.

Reprinted by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.

Use of Oxygen Cylinder.—Open the valve gradually by tapping the lever key (which must first be extended to its full length) with the wrist, until the oxygen flows in a gentle stream from the mouthpiece into the patient’s mouth. The lips should not be closed round the mouthpiece. The nostrils should be closed during breathing in, and opened during breathing out.

If the teeth are set, close the lips and one nostril. Let the conical end of the mouthpiece slightly enter the other nostril during breathing in, and remove it for breathing out.

The suggested regulations made after his inquiry (see p. 149) by Dr. Copeman are:

1. Ferro-silicon should not be sent out from the works immediately after manufacture, but after being broken up into pieces of the size in which it is usually sold, should be stored under cover, but exposed to the air as completely as possible, for at least a month before being despatched from the works.

2. Manufacturers should be required to mark in bold letters each barrel or other parcel of ferro-silicon with the name and percentage grade (certified by chemical analysis) of the material; the name of the works where it is produced; the date of manufacture; and date of despatch.

3. The carriage of ferro-silicon on vessels carrying passengers should be prohibited. When carried on cargo boats it should, if circumstances permit, be stored on deck. If it be considered necessary to store it elsewhere, the place of storage should be capable of being adequately ventilated, and such place of storage should be cut off by airtight bulkheads from the quarters occupied by the crew of the vessel.

4. This regulation should apply to the transport of ferro-silicon on river or canal barges as well as on sea-going vessels.

5. Storage places at docks or at works where ferro-silicon is used should have provision for free access of air, and should be situated at a distance from work-rooms, mess-rooms, offices, &c.

Regulations 5-7 contain precautions to be observed in the corroding chambers.

APPENDIX

REFERENCES