History of Ancient Civilization

CHAPTER I

PREHISTORIC TIMES. Prehistoric archaeology--Prehistoric remains; their antiquity--Prehistoric science--The four ages.

THE ROUGH STONE AGE. Remains found in the gravels--The cave-men.

THE POLISHED STONE AGE. Lake-villages--Megalithic monuments.

THE BRONZE AGE. Bronze--Bronze objects.

THE IRON AGE. Iron--Iron weapons--Epochs of the Iron Age.

Conclusions: How the four ages are to be conceived; uncertainties; solved questions.

CHAPTER II

HISTORY AND THE DOCUMENTS. History--Legends--History in general--Great divisions of history--Ancient history--Modern history--The Middle Ages.

SOURCES FOR THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS. Books--Monuments--Inscriptions--Languages--Lacunae.

RACES AND PEOPLES. Anthropology--The races--Civilized peoples--Aryans and Semites.

CHAPTER III

THE EGYPTIANS. Egypt--The country--The Nile--Fertility of the soil--The accounts of Herodotus--Champollion--Egyptologists--Discoveries.

THE EGYPTIAN EMPIRE. Antiquity of the Egyptian people--Memphis and the pyramids--Egyptian civilization--Thebes--The Pharaoh--The subjects--Despotism--Isolation of the Egyptians.

RELIGION OF THE EGYPTIANS. The gods--Osiris--Ammon-ra--Gods with animal heads--Sacred animals--The bull Apis--Worship of the dead--Judgment of the soul--Mummies--Book of the Dead--The arts--Industry-- Architecture--Tombs--Temples--Sculpture--Painting--Literature-- Destinies of the Egyptian civilization.

CHAPTER IV. The Assyrians and Babylonians. Chaldea--the Land--the People--the

THE ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. Chaldea--The land--The people--The cities.

THE ASSYRIANS--Assyria--Origins--Ancient accounts--Modern discoveries-- Inscriptions on bricks--Cuneiform writing--The Assyrian people--The king--Fall of the Assyrian Empire.

THE BABYLONIANS. The second Chaldean empire--Babylon--The Tower of Babylon.

CUSTOMS AND RELIGION. Customs--Religion--The gods--Astrology-- Sorcery--The sciences.

THE ARTS. Architecture--Palaces--Sculpture.

CHAPTER V

THE ARYANS OF INDIA. The Aryans--Aryan languages--The Aryan people.

PRIMITIVE RELIGION OF THE HINDOOS. The Aryans on the Indus--The Vedas--The gods--Indra--Agni--The cult--Worship of ancestors.

BRAHMANIC SOCIETY. The Hindoos on the Ganges--Castes--The Impure--The Brahmans--The new religion of Brahma--Transmigration of souls-- Character of this religion--The rites--Purity--Penances--The monks.

BUDDHISM. Buddha--Nirvana--Charity--Fraternity--Tolerance--Later history of Buddhism--Changes in Buddhism--Buddha transformed into a god--Mechanical prayer--Amelioration of manners.

CHAPTER VI. The Persians. the Religion of Zoroaster--Iran--the Iranians--

THE PERSIANS. The religion of Zoroaster--Iran--The Iranians-- Zoroaster--The Zend-Avesta--Ormuzd and Ahriman--Angels and demons-- Creatures of Ormuzd and Ahriman--The cult--Morality--Funerals-- Destiny of the soul--Character of Mazdeism.

THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. The Medes--The Persians--Cyrus--The inscription of Behistun--The Persian empire--The satrapies--Revenues of the empire--The Great King--Services rendered by the Persians--Susa and Persepolis--Persian architecture.

CHAPTER VII

THE PHOENICIANS. The Phoenician people--The land--The cities--Phoenician ruins--Organization of the Phoenician--Tyre--Carthage--Carthaginian army--The Carthaginians--The Phoenician religion.

PHOENICIAN COMMERCE. Occupations of the Phoenicians--Caravans--Marine commerce--Commodities--Secret kept by the Phoenicians--Colonies-- Influence of the Phoenicians--The alphabet.

CHAPTER VIII

THE HEBREWS. Origin of the Hebrew people--The Bible--The Hebrews--The patriarchs--The Israelites--The call of Moses--Israel in the desert--The Promised Land.

THE RELIGION OF ISRAEL. One God--The people of God--The covenant--The Ten Commandments--The Law--Religion constituted the Jewish people.

THE EMPIRE OF ISRAEL. The Judges--The Hangs--Jerusalem--The tabernacle--The temple.

THE PROPHETS. Disasters of Israel--Sentiments of the Israelites--The prophets--The new teaching--The Messiah.

THE JEWISH PEOPLE. Return to Jerusalem--The Jews--The synagogues-- Destruction of the temple--The Jews after the dispersion.

CHAPTER IX

GREECE AND THE GREEKS. The country--The sea--The climate--Simplicity of Greek life--The people--Origin of the Greeks--Legends--The Trojan War--The Homeric Poems--The Greeks at the time of Homer--The Dorians--The Ionians--The Hellenes--The cities.

THE HELLENES BEYOND THE SEA. Colonization--Character of the colonies-- Traditions touching the colonies--Importance of the Greek colonies.

CHAPTER X. Greek Religion. the

GREEK RELIGION. The gods--Polytheism--Anthropomorphism--Mythology--Local gods--The great gods--Attributes of the gods--Olympus and Zeus--Morality of the Greek mythology.

THE HEROES. Various sorts of heroes--Presence of the heroes-- Intervention of the heroes.

WORSHIP. Principle of the cult of the gods--The great Feasts--the sacred games--Omens--Oracles--Amphictyonies.

CHAPTER XI

SPARTA. The People--Laconia--The Helots--The Perioeci--Condition of the Spartiates.

EDUCATION. The children--The girls--The discipline--Laconism--Music-- The dance--Heroism of the women.

INSTITUTIONS. The kings and the council--The ephors--The army--The hoplites--The phalanx--Gymnastics--Athletes--Role of the Spartiates.

CHAPTER XII

ATHENS. Origins of the Athenian people--Attica--Athens--The revolutions in Athens--Reforms of Cleisthenes.

THE ATHENIAN PEOPLE. The slaves--The foreigners--The citizens.

THE GOVERNMENT. The assembly--The courts--The magistrates--Character of the government--The demagogues.

PRIVATE LIFE. Children--Marriage--Women.

CHAPTER XIII

WARS. The Persian wars--Origin of these wars--Comparison of the two adversaries--First Persian war--Second Persian war--Reasons for the victory of the Greeks--Results of the wars.

WARS OF THE GREEKS AMONG THEMSELVES. The Peloponnesian war--War with Sparta--Savage character of the wars--Effects of these wars.

CHAPTER XIV

THE ARTS IN GREECE. Athens in the time of Pericles--Pericles--Athens and her monuments--Importance of Athens.

LETTERS. Orators--Sages--Sophists--Socrates and the philosophers--The chorus--Tragedy and comedy--Theatre.

ARTS. The Grecian temples--Characteristics of Grecian architecture--Sculpture--Pottery--Painting.

CHAPTER XV. The Greeks in the Orient. Asia Before Alexander--Decadence of the

THE GREEKS IN THE ORIENT. Asia before Alexander--Decadence of the Persian empire--Expedition of the Ten Thousand--Agesilaus.

CONQUEST OF ASIA BY ALEXANDER. Macedon--Philip--Demosthenes--The Macedonian supremacy--Alexander--The phalanx--Departure of Alexander--Victories of Granicus, Issus, and Arbela--Death of Alexander--Projects of Alexander.

THE HELLENES IN THE ORIENT. Dismemberment of the empire of Alexander-- The Hellenistic kingdoms--Alexandria--Museum--Pergamum.

CHAPTER XVI. Later Period of Greek History. Decadence of the Cities--Rich and

LATER PERIOD OF GREEK HISTORY. Decadence of the cities--Rich and poor--Strife between rich and poor--Democracy and oligarchy--The tyrants--Exhaustion of Greece.

THE ROMAN CONQUEST. The leagues--The allies of the Romans--The last struggles.

THE HELLENES IN THE OCCIDENT. Influence of Greece on Rome-- Architecture--Sculpture--Literature--Epicureans and Stoics.

CHAPTER XVII

ANCIENT PEOPLES OF ITALY. The Etruscans--Etruria--The Etruscan people-- The Etruscan tombs--Industry and commerce--Religion--The augurs-- Influence of the Etruscans.

THE ITALIAN PEOPLE. Umbrians and Oscans--The Sacred Spring--The Samnites--The Greeks of Italy.

LATINS AND ROMANS. The Latins--Rome--Roma Quadrata and the Capitol.

CHAPTER XVIII. Religion and the Family. Religion--the Roman Gods--Form of the

RELIGION AND THE FAMILY. Religion--The Roman gods--Form of the gods--Principle of the Roman religion--Worship--Formalism-- Prayer--Omens--The priests.

WORSHIP OF ANCESTORS. The dead--Worship of the dead--Cult of the hearth.

THE FAMILY. Religion of the family--Marriage--Women--Children--Father of the family.

CHAPTER XIX

THE ROMAN CITY. Formation of the Roman people--The kings--The Roman people--The plebeians--Strife between patricians and plebeians-- The tribunes of the plebs--Triumph of the plebs.

THE ROMAN PEOPLE. Right of citizenship--The nobles--The knights--The plebs--Freedmen.

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC. The comitia--Magistrates--Censors-- Senate--The course of offices.

CHAPTER XX

ROMAN CONQUEST. The Roman army--Military service--The levy--Legions and allies--Military exercises--Camp--Order of battle--Discipline-- Colonies &ad military roads.

CHARACTER OF THE CONQUESTS. War--Conquest of Italy--Punic wars--Hannibal--Conquest of the Orient--Conquest of barbarian lands--The triumph--Booty--Allies of Rome--Motives of conquest.

RESULTS OF THE CONQUESTS. Empire of the Roman people--The public domain--Agrarian laws.

CHAPTER XXI

THE CONQUERED PEOPLES. The provincials--Provinces--The proconsuls-- Tyranny and oppression of the proconsuls--The publicans--Bankers-- Defencelessness of the provincials.

SLAVERY. Sale of slaves--Condition of slaves--Number of slaves--Urban slaves--Rural slaves--Treatment of slaves--Ergastulum and mill-- Character of the slaves--Revolts--Admission to citizenship.

CHAPTER XXII

TRANSFORMATION OF LIFE IN ROME. Influence of Greece and the Orient.

CHANGES IN RELIGION. Greek gods--The Bacchanals--Superstitions of the Orient--Sceptics.

CHANGES IN MANNERS. The old customs--Cato the Elder--The new manners-- Oriental luxury--Greek humanity--Lucullus--The new education--New status of women--Divorce.

CHAPTER XXIII. Fall of the Republic. Causes of the Decadence--Destruction of the

FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. Causes of the decadence--Destruction of the peasant class--The city plebs--Electoral corruption--Corruption of the Senate--Corruption of the army.

THE REVOLUTION. Necessity of the revolution--Civil wars--The Gracchi-- Marius and Sulla--Pompey and Caesar--End of the Republic--Need of peace--Power of the individual.

CHAPTER XXIV

THE EMPIRE AT ITS HEIGHT. The twelve Caesars--The emperor--Apotheosis-- Senate and people--The praetorians--Freedmen of the emperors-- Despotism and disorder.

THE CENTURY OF THE ANTONINES. Marcus Aurelius--Conquests of the Antonines.

IMPERIAL INSTITUTIONS. Extent of the empire in the second century-- Permanent army--Deputies and agents of the emperor--Municipal life--Imperial regime.

SOCIAL LIFE UNDER THE EMPIRE. The continued decadence at Rome--The shows--Theatre--Circus--Amphitheatre--Gladiators--The Roman peace--Fusion of the peoples--Superstitions.

CHAPTER XXV. Arts and Sciences in Rome. Letters--Imitation of the Greeks--the

ARTS AND SCIENCES IN ROME. Letters--Imitation of the Greeks--The Augustan Age--Orators and rhetoricians--Importance of the Latin literature and language--Arts--Sculpture and painting-- Architecture--Characteristics of Roman architecture--Rome and its monuments.

ROMAN LAW. The Twelve Tables--Symbolic process--Formalism-- Jurisprudence--The praetor's edict--Civil law and the law of nations--Written reason.

CHAPTER XXVI. The Christian Religion. Origin of Christianity--Christ--Charity--

THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. Origin of Christianity--Christ--Charity-- Equality--Poverty and humility--The kingdom of God.

FIRST CENTURIES OF THE CHURCH. Disciples and apostles--The church-- Sacred books--Persecutions--Martyrs--Catacombs.

THE MONKS OF THE THIRD CENTURY. Solitaries--Asceticism--Cenobites.

CHAPTER XXVII. The Later Empire. the Revolutions of the Third Century--Military

THE LATER EMPIRE. The revolutions of the third century--Military anarchy--Worship of Mithra--Taurobolia--Confusion of religions.

REGIME OF THE LATER EMPIRE. Reforms of Diocletian and Constantine-- Constantinople--The palace--The officials--Society of the later empire.

CHURCH AND STATE. Triumph of Christianity--Organization of the church--Councils--Heretics--Paganism--Theodosius.

CHAPTER I. The Origins of Civilization

THE ORIGINS OF CIVILIZATION

PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY

=Prehistoric Remains.=--One often finds buried in the earth, weapons, implements, human skeletons, debris of every kind left by men of whom we have no direct knowledge. These are dug up by the thousand in all the provinces of France, in Switzerland, in England, in all Europe; they are found even in Asia and Africa. It is probable that they exist in all parts of the world.

These remains are called prehistoric because they are more ancient than written history. For about fifty years men have been engaged in recovering and studying them. Today most museums have a hall, or at least, some cases filled with these relics. A museum at Saint-German-en-Laye, near Paris, is entirely given up to prehistoric remains. In Denmark is a collection of more than 30,000 objects. Every day adds to the discoveries as excavations are made, houses built, and cuts made for railroads.

These objects are not found on the surface of the ground, but ordinarily buried deeply where the earth has not been disturbed. They are recovered from a stratum of gravel or clay which has been deposited gradually and has fixed them in place safe from the air, a sure proof that they have been there for a long time.

=Prehistoric Science.=--Scholars have examined the debris and have asked themselves what men have left them. From their skeletons, they have tried to construct their physical appearance; from their tools, the kind of life they led. They have determined that these instruments resemble those used by certain savages today. The study of all these objects constitutes a new science, Prehistoric Archaeology.

=The Four Ages.=--Prehistoric remains come down to us from very diverse races of men; they have been deposited in the soil at widely different epochs since the time when the mammoth lived in western Europe, a sort of gigantic elephant with woolly hide and curved tusks. This long lapse of time may be divided into four periods, called Ages:

1. The Rough Stone Age.

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