Volume I.

Abbot, M. L. (and Humphreys, A. A.), 106, 202

Abrasion, by ice, 281 by streams, 119 by waves, 342 by wind, 38

Abysmal fauna, 671

Abysmal sea, 326

Accretion hypothesis, internal temperature on, 564, 567 recombination of material on, 568

Actinolite, 447, 460

Adams, F. D., 474

Adjustment of streams, structural, 146, 150 topographic, 162, 163, 197

Adobe, 467

Agassiz, 366, 604

Agassiz, L., 321, 322, 323, 366

Agate, 460

Agate structure, 436

Agglomerate, 434, 467

Aggradation, by ice, 298 by streams, 2, 177 by wind, 25 in sea, 333, 355

Aggrading streams, characteristics, 179, 187

Airy, Sir G., 341

Alabaster, 460

Albite, 400, 460

Alferric rocks, 454

Algæ, geologic contribution of, 653 influence on precipitation, 225

Alkalicalcic rocks, 458

Alluvial cone, 181–3 growth, 181 levees, 182

Alluvial deposits, 177–96

Alluvial fans, 181–3

Alluvial plains, 181, 184–96 material of, 196 origin of, 184, 185 piedmont, 183 topography of, 196

Alluviation, 181, 196, 467 ill-defined, 183

Alpine glaciers, 251

Alps, crustal shortening involved in formation of, 549, 576 structure, 504, 507

Amber, 646

Amethyst, 460

Amphibole, 460

Amphiboles, 400

Amygdaloid, 411, 467

Analcite, 460

Analyses, American river-waters, 107 American spring-waters, 235 rain-waters, 107 river-waters, 106, 107, 108 sea-water, 324 waters of enclosed lakes, 392

Anamorphism, 446

Andalusite, 460

Andes, snow-line in, 246

Andesine, 400, 460

Andesite, 467

Angiosperms, 657

Anhydrite, 460

Animal kingdom, geologic contribution of, 658–63 synopsis of, 659

Anorthite, 460

Anorthosite, 467

Antarctica, snow-line in, 246

Antecedent streams, 169, 173

Anthracite, 426, 460

Anticlinal valleys, 159

Anticline, 504 plunging, 155, 157, 506

Anticlinoria, 504

Antimony, 460

Apatite, 460

Aphanite, 451, 452, 467

Aplite, 415

Appalachian Riser, 173

Appalachians, crustal shortening due to folding, 549 extent of piracy in, 169 peculiarities of drainage, 169 rejuvenation of streams in, 165 stream adjustment in, 147

Aqueous rocks, 467

Aragonite, 460

Archean complex, 18

Arch of earth’s crust, strength of, 582

Archeozoic era, 19

Arenaceous rocks, 468

Arid regions, erosion in, 131

Argillite, 448, 468

Arkose, 422, 468, 645

Artesian wells, 242

Arthropoda, geologic contribution of, 662

Asiderites, 5

Asphaltum, 460

Asteroids, 661

Astronomic geology, 1, 2

Atlantic coastal plain, 587

Atmosphere, 5 affected by life, 639, 640 carbonation by, 43 chemical work of, 41–43 evaporation and precipitation, 50 fluctuations in composition, 639–44 geologic activity of, 6, 21–43 mass and extent, 6 mechanical work of, 21–41 oxidation by, 42 thermal effects of, 7

Atmospheric electricity, 43, 52

Atmospheric precipitation, amount of, 51

Augite, 400, 429, 461

Augitite, 468

Autoclastic rock, 444

Australia, fauna of, 668

Babb, C. C., 107

Bad-lands, 93, 130

Badger Mountain, 231

Bain, H. F., 67, 474

Barbadoes earth, 661

Barite, 461

Barrier, the, 356

Bars, 181, 357

Barus, Carl, 562, 563

Basalt, 417, 452, 468

Basaltic columns, 417

Base-level, 60, 62, 82, 168 Cretaceous, 169 Kiltatinny, 168 temporary, 84

Basement complex, 18

Batholiths, 500, 592

Bayou, 192

Bayou lakes, 193

Bays, origin of, 331, 332

Beach, the, 355

Beauxite, 461

Beck, R., 474

Becker, G. F., 474

Bergschrund, 258

Bertin, 323

Beryl, 461

Bighorn Mountains, lateral moraines in, 302

Biotite, 400, 461

Bischoff, Gustav, 108

Bismuth, 461

“Bittern,” 377

Bitumen, 461

Bituminous coal, 426, 468

Blake, W. P., 474

Blanford, W. T., 28, 203

Blood rain, 25

Blue mud, 380

Bone beds, 663

Bonneville lake, 360

Bonneville shore, 352

Bottom-set beds, 202

Bowlders, 468

Brachiopods, geologic contributions of, 662

Brahmaputra delta, 203

Branner, J. C., 489

Breakers, 341 force of, 344

Breccia, 423, 434, 468

Britannare, 459

Bronzite, 461

Bryozoans, geologic contributions of, 662

Buckley, E. R., 48, 50, 221

Buhrstone, 468

Burton (and Milne, J.), 636

Buttes, 142

Bysmaliths, 500, 592

Calcareous springs, 235

Calcareous tufa, 390

Calcimiric rocks, 458

Calcite, 461

Calc-sinter, 468

Calumet and Hecla mine, temperature in, 569

Calvin, S., 88, 204, 373, 389

Campbell, M. R., 167, 171, 173

Camphene, 646

Cannel coal, 468

Canoe-shaped valleys, 155

Canyons, 94–100 Colorado, 98, 233 Niagara, 99 Yellowstone, 100

Carbonation, 43, 429

Carbon dioxide, amount in air, 5, 640 and plant-life, 665 climatic effects of, 643 loss of, 640 supply of, 618, 640

Cascade, 264

Cassiterite, 461

Catlinite, 461

Causes of crustal movement, 551–557

Caverns (see Caves)

Caves, 143, 227–231 deposits in, 228 Mammoth, 227 sea, 350 Wyandotte, 227

Cazin, F. M. F., 474

Cementation, effected through chemical precipitation, 222, 225, 226 effected through evaporation, 42

Cephalopods, geologic contributions of, 662

Chalcedony, 461

Chalk, 468, 660

Challenger deep, 587, 588

Chalybeate springs, 235

Chamberlin, T. C., 23, 242, 256, 322, 477, 565, 668

Changes of level, 537–551 caused by earthquakes, 536 causes of, 551–557 effect on drainage, 161 sea versus land, 538

Changes of temperature, conditions affecting, 45 effect on rocks, 44, 49 internal (see Internal temperatures)

Charleston earthquake, 530

Chatter marks, 284

Chemical combination, cause of crustal movement, 556

Chemical deposits, 222–26 in deep sea, 383 in lakes, 391 in shallow sea, 374–378

Chemical work of atmosphere, 41–43

Chemical work of life, 638–46

Chert, 426, 468

Chiastolite, 461

Chimney rocks, 350

Chlorite, 461

Chlorite schist, 468

Chloritic rock, 431

Chromite, 461

Chrysolite, 462

Chrysotile, 462

Cinder-cones, 608

Cinders, 405

Cirques, 286

Clarke, F. W., 396, 573

Classification of rocks, 449 new system of, 451

Clastic rock, 468

Clay, 468

Clay ironstone, 468

Claypole, E. W., 549

Cleavage planes and erosion, 125 development of (see Slate and Schist)

Cliff glacier, 256

Climate, influence on erosion, 127–132

Climatic effects of carbon dioxide, 643

Climatic effects of life, 643

Climatic effects of water vapor, 643

Clinkstone, 468

Clinometer, 501

Coal, 468

Coast-lines 353, 363–6 effect of gradation on, 333, 363 effect of subsidence on, 329, 332 effect of vulcanism on, 332–33 forms of, 329, 333, 363, 364

Coast ranges, crustal, shortening due to folding of, 549

Coasts, natural bridges on, 351

Cobb, C., 36

Cœlenterata, geologic contribution of, 661

Collins, A. L., 474

Colorado, Canyon of, 98, 233

Columbia River, 171

Columnar structure, 498–500 effect on weathering, 153, 154

Common springs, 235

Compression joints, 514

Concave tracts of crust, 585, 586

Concretions, 438, 468, 490

Cones, cinder, 608 composite, 610 formation of, 608 geyser, 237 lava, 608 spatter, 610 tufa, 611

Configuration of coasts, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 353, 363–6

Conformability, 15

Conglomerate, 423, 434, 468, 487

Continental glaziers, 251

Continental platforms, 11 relief of, 11

Continental segments, size of, 547

Continental shelf, 11

Continent-forming movements, 544

Contour interval, 31

Contour lines, 31

Convection hypothesis, internal heat on, 559 thermal distribution on, 559

Cooley, E. G., 195

Coon Butte, 596

Copalite, 646

Coprolites, 646

Coquina, 469

Coral mud, 380

Cornish, V., 26, 28, 29

Corrasion, 110, 113 by glaciers, 281–86 by streams, 119 by waves, 342–49 by wind, 38 effect of sediment on, 120

Corthell, E. L., 202

Cosmopolitan faunas, 668

Coulter, J. M., 667

Coves, 143

Cowles, H. C., 35, 667

Credner, H., 35, 538

Creep, 231

Cretaceous base-level, 169

Crevasses, 264

Crinoids, 661

Croll, James, 322, 323, 339

Crosby, W. O., 513

Cross-bedding, 373, 487

Cross-currents, in streams, 117

Cross, Whitman, 412, 451, 535, 573

Croton River, material in solution in, 108

Crustal movements, 526–589 causes of, 551–57 differential extent of, 548 due to chemical changes, 556 due to cohesion and crystallization, 554 due to diffusion, 555 earthquake, 527–33 minute and rapid, 526 periodicity of, 517, 539 resistance to, 557 slow and massive, 537–59

Crustal shortening, 548–51

Crust of earth, 13 depth of, 14 varieties of rock in, 14

Crystalline rocks, types of, 16

Crystallites, 407

Crystallization of lava, 401–2 stages of, 403

Crystals, enlargement of, 435

Cut-and-fill, 190, 193

Cut-off, 191

Cycle of erosion, its stages, 80 definition of, 82 recognition of, 164

Cystoids, 661

Dacite, 469

Dale, T. N., 505

Daly, R. A., 631

Dana, J. D., 203, 340, 349, 511, 543, 604, 636

Daniell, A., 572, 573

Danube River, delta of, 202 material in solution in, 108 sediment carried by, 107

Darton, N. H., 41, 50, 53, 94, 135, 154, 494, 570

Darwin, C., 604, 636, 665

Darwin, G. H., 534, 561, 576, 579, 583, 604

Daubree, G. A., 626

Davis, B. M., 225

Davis, W. M., 83, 159, 164, 170, 188, 202, 204 210 349, and Shaler, N. S., 256

Davis, C. A., 655

Davison, C., 527, 538, 561

DeBeaumont, Eli, 323

Decarbonation, 429, 430

DeCharpentier, J., 321, 322, 323

Deeley, R. M., 322

Deep-sea deposits, 368, 378–86 chemical, 383–86 extra-terrestrial, 381 inorganic, 380 manganiferous, 384 organic, 382

Deep-sea fauna, 670

Deposition, by glaciers, 298–305 by streams, 177–204 by shore currents, 355 by undertow, 355 by waves, 355–63 by wind, 25–37

Deformation of earth’s crust, 526–89 causes of, 551–57, 574–89 relation to distribution of volcanoes, 601, 604, 627, 629

Deformation of ice, 312

Degradation, 2 by water, 58–177 rate of, 105

De Launay, L. C., 474

Delesse, A., 221, 341

Delessite, 462

Dells of the Wisconsin, 152

Delta lakes, 204

Deltas, 181, 198–204 bottom set beds, 202 development, 199 fore-set beds, 202 fossil, 203 in tidal seas, 202 of the Ganges and Brahmaputra, 202 of the Hoang-Ho, 202, 203 of the Mackenzie, 202 of the Mississippi, 197, 202 of the Nile, 202 of the Po, 202 of the Rhone, 203 of the Yukon, 202 rate of growth, 202 shape, 201 structure, 198, 199 top-set beds, 202

Densities within the earth, on Laplace’s law, 564

Denudation and volcanic action, 627

Deoxidation, 427

Deposition of mineral matter from solution, 50, 225, 428 at surface, 50, 224 by ground-water, 224, 428 in lakes, 387 in sea, 375, 383

Deposition of sediment, 66 by rivers, 177–204 by wind, 25–38 in ocean, 355–63, 368–86

Deposition of drift, at edge of glaciers, 299 at end glaciers 299 beneath ice, 298

Deposits, deep-sea, 368, 378–86 hot springs, 237, 241 lacustrine, 387 littoral, 369 made by animals, 658–63 made by Arthropoda, 662 made by Bryophytes, 656 made by Echinodermata, 661 made by ice, 298–305 made by Mollusca, 662 made by Molluscoidea, 662 made by Protozoa, 660 made by Pteridophytes, 657 made by plant kingdom, 652–58 made by rivers, 177–204 made by Spermatophytes, 657 made by Thallophytes, 653 made by Vermes, 662 made by Vertebrata, 663 made by wind, 25–38 shallow-water, 369–78 silicious, 237, 241, 425 tufa, 237, 241, 473, 611, 653

Depression and volcanic action, 629

Depth of the ocean, 7 greatest, 8, 548

Diabases, 418, 431, 469

Diallage, 400, 462

Diastrophism, 2, 329, 526 effect on coast lines, 329

Diatom ooze, 380, 382, 425, 469

Diffusion, in earth’s interior, 555 cause of crustal movement, 555

Dikes, 591 effect on topography, 143 sandstone, 514

Diller, J. S., 29, 514

Diorites, 416, 452, 469

Dip, 501 quaquaversal, 504

Dip-fault, 522

DiRossi, M. S., 537

Displacement of fault, 514

Disruption of rock, due to changes of temperature, 44, 49 by carbonation, 43 by hydration, 111

Distributive fault, 519

Divides, permanence of, 69

Docalcic rocks, 458

Dodge, R. E., 204

Dofemane, 455

Dofemic rocks, 454

Doferrous rocks, 459

Dohemic rocks, 457

Dolenic rocks, 456

Dolerites, 417, 452, 469

Dolomites, 424, 469

Domagnesic rocks, 459

Domalkalic rocks, 458

Domes of crust, strength of, 581, 582

Domilic rocks, 582

Domiric rocks, 458

Domirlic rocks, 458

Domitic rocks, 457

Dopolic rocks, 456

Dopotassic rocks, 458

Dopyric rocks, 457

Doquaric rocks, 456

Dosalic rocks, 454

Dosodic rocks, 458

Dotilic rocks, 457

Drainage, effect of change of level on, 161 mature, 86 of glaciers, 273 old age, 89 youthful, 86

Dreikanter, 40

Drift, 287, 469 composition of, 304 deposition of, 298–305 wear of, in transit, 298

Drygalski, E. von, 322

Dump moraine, 301

Dune areas, topography of, 32

Dunes, 24–37 distribution of, 35 effect of vegetation on, 29 formation of, 26 migration of, 33 shapes of, 26 slopes of, 29

Dust, volcanic, 22, 23 wind-blown, 22

Dust-wells, 269, 280

Dutton, C. E., 132, 534, 574, 636

Dynamic geology, 1

Earth, the, as a planet, 2 constitution, 5 crust, 13 deformation of, 526 dependence on sun, 4 distance from sun, 3 inclination of axis, 3 interior of, 14, 559 internal heat, 559–74 motions, 3 orbit, 3 tremors of surface, 526 warpings of crust, 526–89

Earthquakes, 527–537 causes of, 527 destruction of life by, 536 distribution of, 533 destructive effects of, 530 epicentra of, 531 foci of, 527 gaseous emanations during, 533 geologic effects of, 534–537

Earthquake vibrations, 526 amplitude of, 529 Charleston, 534 Lisbon, 535 sequences of, 533

Earth’s crust, composition of, 14, 396 warpings of, 538–551

Eastman, C. R., 658

Echinodermata, geologic contributions of, 661

Echinoids, geologic contributions of, 661

Economic geology, 1

Efflorescence, 42

Elæolite, 462

Electricity, atmospheric, 43 chemical effects of, 43 geological effects of, 43, 52

Ells, R., 443

Emmons, S. F., 474

Emmons, W. H., 474, 573, 585

Englacial drift, 282

Enlargement of crystals, by secondary growth, 435

Enstatite, 400, 462

Eolian rocks, 469

Epeirogenic movements, 537

Epicontinental seas, 11, 326

Epidote, 431, 462

Equisetæ, geologic contribution of, 657

Eras, 17–19

Erosion, affected by rotation, 194 analysis of, 110 base-level of, 60 by glaciers, 281–286 by rain, 57 by rivers, 56–177 by undertow, 342, 346 by waves, 342–349 by wind, 38 conditions affecting rate of, by glaciers, 283 conditions affecting rate of, by running water, 123 cycle of, 80, 82, 164 in arid regions, 131 influenced by climate, 127, 128, 129 influenced by composition of rock, 124 influenced by declivity, 123 influenced by structure, 124, 126 influenced by vegetation, 129, 644 sheet, 59 subaërial, 58

Erosion and cleavage planes, 125

Erosion and joints, 125

Erosion by streams (see Erosion by running water)

Eruptions, 591 fissure, 593 volcanic, 594

Eskers, 306

Etna, 605, 610 discharge of stream from, 636

Evaporation, 50

Everett, 578

Evolution restrictive and expansional, 672

Exfoliation, 44

Expansional evolution, 672

Expansion and contraction, due to temperature, 44 due to wetting and drying, 52

Extinct lakes, 388

Extrusive processes, 590–637

Falb, R., 537

False bedding, 487

Faulting and vulcanism, 627

Faults, conditions of, 521 dip, 522 displacement, 514 distributive, 519 effect on outcrops, 522 hade, 514 heave of, 514 normal, 517 oblique, 525 relation to folds, 515 reversed, 517, 521 stratigraphic throw, 518 significance of, 521 strike, 522 thrust, 517, 518

Fault scarp, 514

Faunas, abysmal, 670 Australian, 668 cosmopolitan, 668 deep-sea, 670 pelagic, 670 photobathic, 670

Faunas and floras, basis of, 663 effect of geographic conditions on evolution of, 668

Feldspar, 462

Feldspar-leucophyres, 453

Feldspar-melaphyres, 453

Feldspathic minerals, 400

Feldspathoids, 400

Felsites, 452, 469

Fenneman, N. M., 339

Ferguson, A. M., 203

Ferns, geologic contribution of, 657

Fiords, 290

Fisher, O., 561, 565, 574, 581

Fissure eruptions, 593

Fletcher, G. (and Deeley, R. M.), 322

Flints, 426, 469

Floods, 109 of the Mississippi, 188

Flood-plain meanders, 190 Flood-plains, 184–98 development of, 165 materials of, 196 Mississippi, 194 relation to terraces, 205 topography, 196

Floras and faunas, basis of, 663 effect of geographic conditions on, 668

Flowering plants, geologic contributions of, 657

Flowing wells, 234, 242

Flow structure of lavas, 410

Fluorite, 462

Fluvio-glacial work, 305–7

Folded ranges, distribution of, 543

Folding and vulcanism, 628

Folds, anticlinal, 504, 505 effect on valleys, 154 isoclinal, 504 synclinal, 504

Folds and faults, 515

Foliation of ice, 272

Foliation of rocks, 443

Foraminifera, geologic contribution of, 660

Forbes, J. D., 256, 322

Forel, F. A., 323, 386

Fore-set beds, 202

Formation, 487

Forster, W. G., 536

“Fossil” deltas, 203

Fossils, 16, 646 a means of correlation, 647

Fossils and stratigraphy, 647

Fouqué, F., 635, 636

Fracture, zone of, 219

Frank, A. B., 642

Freestone, 469

French Broad River, the, 168

Fulgurites, 52, 469

Fungi, geologic contribution of, 653

Gabbroids, 453

Gabbros, 416, 452, 469

Galenite, 441

Ganges River, delta of, 203

Gangue, 469

Gannister, 469

Garnet, 462

Garnetite, 469

Gaseous emanations, during earthquakes, 533 from volcanoes, 617

Gases in volcanic rocks, 619

Gases, volcanic, 617–623 amount of, 620 kinds of, 618, 619 proportions of, 620, 622 sources of, 621

Gastropods, geologic contributions of, 662

Geantcline, 505

Geest, 469

Geikie, A., 203, 224, 344, 534–536, 636

Geodes, 436, 497

Geognosy, 1, 5, 393–485

Geologic effects of earthquakes, 534

Geologic functions of life, 638

Geologic processes, man’s influence on, 649

Geologic time divisions, 19

Geology, astronomic, 1, 2 atmospheric, 2 cosmic, 1 dominant processes of, 2 dynamic, 1 economic, 1 geotectonic, 1, 486 glacial, 2 historical, 1 mining, 1 paleontologic, 1 philosophic, 1 physiographic, 1 scope of, 1 structural, 1, 486 subdivisions of, 1

George, R. D., 545

Geosyncline, 505

Geotectonic geology, 1, 486–525

Gerber, E., 195

Gerland, 538

Geschiebe wall, 300

Geyserite, 463, 469

Geysers, 236 deposits of, 237 of Yellowstone Park, 239 period of eruption, 240 positions of, 241

Gilbert, G. K., 11, 110, 140, 194, 198, 203, 339, 355, 388, 489, 596

Glacial débris, how carried, 290 nature of, 286 shifting position in transit, 292, 293, 294, 296, 297

Glacial deposits, nature of, 304

Glacial erosion, conditions influencing, 283 topographic effects of, 287

Glacial motion, 313–321 auxiliary elements of, 317 fundamental element of, 313

Glacial plucking, 282

Glaciated rock surfaces, 304

Glacier ice, beginning of movement, 248 definition of, 250 granular texture of, 247 shearing of, 317

Glacier movement, 259, 313–323 at low temperature, 279 effect of water on, 318 rates, 260, 261 views of, 321

Glaciers, alpine, 254 cliff, 256 compared with rivers, 262 conditions influencing movement, 261 constitution, 308 continental, 251 crevasses, 264 deformation, 312 drainage of, 273, 280 foliation, 247, 272 evaporation, 279 general phenomena, 256 getting load, 282 growth of, 308 growth of granules, 310, 311 high-latitude, 254 limits of, 258 motion in terminal part, 316 movements of, 259, 279, 313–323 piedmont, 254 polar, 254 rate of movement of, 260, 261 reconstructed, 256 stratification of, 247 structure of, 308 surface features of, 266 temperature of, 273–279 thickening of layers at end, 297 topography of, 266 types of, 251 upturning of ice at ends and edges, 296, 297, 298 valley, 254 waste of, 273 work of, 244, 281

Glacio-fluvial work, 305–308

Glass, volcanic, 451

Glassy rocks, 406

Glauconite, 384, 386, 463

Globigerina ooze, 380, 382, 660

Globulites, 407, 469

Gneiss, 415, 446, 448, 469

Gooch, F. A. (and Whitfield, J. E.), 236

Gorge, 100

Grad, Ch., 322

Gradation, 2 by running water, 56–212 effect on coast-lines, 334 in ocean, 334

Grade, 61

Graded plain, 82, 169

Graded valley, 83

Granitell, 470

Granites, 413, 452, 469

Granitite, 470

Granitoids, 420, 453

Granulite, 470

Graphite, 426, 463

Gravitational energy, 552

Gravitational force, 552, 553

Gravity, a cause of crustal movements, 552 effect on erosion, 113

Gray, T. (and Milne, J.), 578

Greenland, glaciers of, 246 snow-fields of, 245 snow-line in, 246

Green mud, 380

Greensand, 470

Greensand marl, 386

Greenstone, 419, 470

Greisen, 415, 470

Greywacke, 470

Ground ice, 119

Ground moraine, 301

Ground-water, 213–243 affects internal heat, 570 amount of, 221 descent of, 213 fate of, 221 lower limit of, 216 movement of, 220 results of, 226 solution by, 222, 223 work of, 222

Ground-water and vulcanism, 635

Ground-water level, 71, 215

Ground-water surface, 71, 215

Guano, 646

Gulf stream, 366

Gullies, growth of, 63

Gymnosperms, geologic contributions of, 657

Gypsum, deposition of, 376, 377

Hade of faults, 514

Hall, Jas., 511

Halleflinta, 470

Halophytes, geologic contributions of, 667

Hanging valley, 164, 290

Haüynite, 463

Hayes, W., 173

Hayes, W. (and Campbell, M. R.), 171

Head erosion, 64

Heat, by compression of ice, 311 causes crustal movement, 557 causes of, in ice, 278, 279 distribution of, within earth, 559 distribution, original, 559 internal, of earth, 559–570 metamorphism by, 446, 448 original distribution of, 559

Heave of faults, 514

Heilprin, A., 636

Heim, A., 256, 322, 549, 576

Hematite, 425, 447, 463

High-latitude glaciers, 254

Himalayas, snow-line in, 246

Historical geology, 1

Hoang-Ho delta, 202, 203

Hog-backs, 142

Holden, E. S., 538

Holmes, W. H., 99

Holocrystalline rock, 412

Holosiderites, 5

Hook (along shore), 363

Hopkins, W., 322

Horizontal configuration of coasts, due to deposition, 363, 364 due to wave erosion, 353

Hornblende, 400, 463

Hornblende-granite, 415

Hornblendite, 417, 452, 470

Hornstone, 470

Horsetails (see Equisetæ)

Hoskins, L. M., 219, 552, 581

Hot springs, deposits of, 225

Howell, Capt., 171

Hudson River, material in solution in, 108

Hugi, F. J., 321

Hull, E., 636

Humphreys, A. A. (and Abbot, M. L.), 106, 202

Huxley, T. H., 322

Hyalite, 463

Hydration, 43, 222 disruption of rock by, 111

Hydrophytes, geologic contributions of, 667

Hydrosphere, the, 7 (see also Ground-water and Ocean) geologic activity of, 8 horizons of activity, 9

Hypersthene, 400, 463

Hypogene rocks, 470

Ice, glacial (see Glaciers) ground, 119 of lakes, 389 of rivers, 118

Icebergs, 307

Ice-caps, 249, 250

Ice crystals, arrangement in glacier ice, 311

Ice-fall, 264

Iceland spar, 463

Iddings, J. P., 412, 451, 573, 614, 636

Igneous rocks, 16 composition of, 395 leading minerals of, 399 origin of, 393 relations to stratified rocks, 16 structural features of, 498

Ilmenite, 463

Incrustation, 223

Infusorial earth, 470

Inorganic deposits, in deep sea, 380

Interior of earth, 14 (see Vulcanism) densities, based on Laplace’s law, 564 heat of, 562, 564 pressures, 564

Intermittent springs, 235

Internal heat (see Internal temperature)

Internal temperature, 562 affected by ground-water, 570 at centre of earth, 571 on accretion hypothesis, 564, 567 on convection hypothesis, 559 on Laplacian hypothesis, 559

Intrusions, 591

Iron-ore beds, origin, 425

Iron oxide, 400

Iron pyrites, 463

Ironstone, 425, 470

Irruptions, 591

Isoclinal folds, 504

Isoseismals, 532

Itacolumite, 470

Italy, lateral moraines in, 303

Jasper, 470

Jefferson, M. W., 193

Johnson, S. W., 109, 190, 665

Johnston-Lavis, H. J., 636

Joints, 510 causes of, 511, 531 compression, 514 effect on valleys, 150

Joints, tension, 514

Joints and erosion, 125

Judd, J. W., 636

Kaaterskill Creek, piracy of, 105

Kames, 307 serpentine, 306

Kansas, volcanic dust in, 23

Kanawha River, 168

Kaolin, 463

Katamorphism, 446

Keith, A., 442, 444

Kelvin, Lord, 560, 583

Keratophyre, 470

Kersantite, 470

Keyes, C. R., 474

Kidd, D. A., 313

Kilauea, 605

King, C., 560

King, F. H., 220

Kittatinny base-level, 168

Kotö, Dr., 534

Krakatoa, 22, 610, 611, 618

Kümmel, H. B., 203

Labradorite, 400, 429, 464

Laccolith, 500, 592

Lacustrine deposits, 388

Lake ice, 389

Lake Pepin, 179

Lakes, 386–392 bayou, 192, 193 changes taking place in, 387 delta, 204 deposits in, 387 extinct, 388 formed by rivers, 191, 192, 198 ice of, 389 ox-bow, 192, 198

Landslide, 231 topography of, 230

Landslip mountain, 230

Lane, A. C., 557, 636

Lapilli, 470 in sea, 381, 405

Laplace, Marquis de, 564

Laramide range, crustal shortening due to folding, 549

Lateral moraines, 266, 302 in Bighorn Mountains, 303 in Italy, 303 in Uinta Mountains, 303 in Wasatch Mountains, 303

Lateral pressure, metamorphism by, 448

Laterite, 470

Lava cones, 608

Lavas, 612–616 and ground-water, 616 consanguinity and succession of, 614 crystallization of, 402, 403 depth of source of, 616 modes of reaching surface, 631 origin of, 623–631 rhyolitic (flow) structure of, 410 solidification of, 393 temperatures of, 615, 626

Lavas and underground water, 627

LeConte, J., 474, 549

Lendofelic, 456

Lenfelic, 456

Lepidolite, 464

Leucite, 464

Leucophyre, 412, 453

Levees, breaking of, 188 miniature, 182 natural, 188 on alluvial cones, 182

Level of no stress, 561

Life, 638–672 atmospheric effects of, 638–644 chemical work of, 638–646 climatic effects of, 643 effect on rock decomposition, 130, 644 geologic effects of, 639 inorganic rocks due to, 646 influenced by environment, 666 man’s influence on, 650 protection against erosion, 130, 644

Life and carbon dioxide, 640, 642, 643

Lightning, effects of, 52

Lignite, 426, 470

Limburgite, 470

Lime carbonate, deposition of, 375, 376

Limonite, 425

Limestone, 378, 424, 434 origin of, 378, 654, 655 stratification of, 487

Limestone-forming animals, 660–662 plants, 654, 655

Limestone sinks, 227, 231

Lindgren, W., 474

Liparase, 459

Liparite, 470

Lisbon earthquake, 535

Lithosphere, 9–19 crust of, 13 irregularities of, 10 relief of, 11 size and shape of, 9 surface mantle of, 12

Littoral currents, 342

Littoral deposits, 368, 369, 379

Littoral zone, 369

Liverworts, geologic contribution of, 656

Livingstone, D., 49

Load (of streams), 177–179

Loess, 23, 470

Lodge moraine, 301

Loop (along shore), 357, 363

Lunar craters, 598

Lunn, A. C., 552, 565, 566, 567, 572

Lycopods, geologic work of, 657

Lydekker, R. (and Nicholson, A.), 658

Lyell, Sir Charles, 649

Mackenzie River, delta, 202

Magma, nature of, 401

Magnesite, 464

Magnesium salts in sea, 377

Magnetic nodules in sea, 381

Magnetite, 464

Malay peninsula, tin ores of, 478

Malaspina glacier, 254

Mallet, R., 322, 537, 538, 628, 636

Mammoth Cave, 227

Mammoth hot springs, 654

Manganiferous deposits, 384

Mantle rock, 12, 422

Marble, 447, 471

Marcasite, 464

Marine deposits, 355–363, 370–386 chemical, 367, 375, 383 deep-sea, 368, 378–386 extra-terrestrial, 381 littoral, 368, 369 mechanical, 369, 380 organic, 375 shallow-water, 369–378 table of, 380

Marine life, distribution of, 328

Marl, 471 (see also Greensand marl and Shell marl) formed by plants, 655 green-sand (see Greensand marl)

Martinique, 605

Martite, 464

Mason, W. P., 107

Mass action, 478, 484, 554

Mature drainage, 86

Mature streams, characteristics of, 86

Mauna Loa, 605, 606, 624

McConnell, J. C., 313, 322, 323, 549

McGee, W. J., 59, 524

Meander belt, relation to width of stream, 193

Meanders, flood-plain, 190 intrenched, 164 of the Meuse, 164 of the Moselle, 164 of the Seine, 164

Mean sphere level, 548

Medial moraine, 266, 297

Medlicott, H. B., 203

Medicinal springs, 235

Melaphyres, 412, 431, 453, 471

Menaccanite, 464

Mendelejeff, D. (and Moissan, H.), 646

Mental element, material effects of, 649

Merrill, G. P., 35, 111, 221

Mesas, 142

Mesophytes, 667

Meta-diabase, 471

Meta-igneous rock, 471

Metamorphic rocks, 17

Metamorphism, 427, 433, 440, 449 by heat, 446 by lateral pressure, 448 deep-seated, 449

Meteorites, 4 number of, 381

Meuse, meanders of, 164

Mica, 400, 464

Mica schists, 448

Microcline, 400, 464

Microlites, 407, 471

Microgranite, 471

Migration of dunes, 33

Millstone, 471

Milne, J., 533, 537, 538, 583 (and Gray, T.), 578 (and Burton), 636

Mineral matter in sea, 324–326 amount of, 325

Minerals, felspathic, 400, 462 ferromagnesian, 400, 460 formation of, 397, 612 of igneous rocks, 399 list of, 460–467

Mineral springs, 235

Minette, 415, 471

Mining geology, 1

Minnehaha Falls, 137

Mirlic rocks, 458

Mississippi River, delta, 197, 202 depth of channel, 171 flood-plain, 194 floods of, 188 levees of, 188 material in solution in, 108 sediment carried by, 106

Mississippi flood-plain, 194 lakes of, 192

Missouri River, scour-and-fill of, 195

Mitic rocks, 456

Moissan, H., 646

Mollusca, geologic contribution of, 662

Molluscoidea, geologic contribution of, 662

Molten interior, lava from, 624

Molten magmas, nature of, 401

Molten reservoirs, lavas from, 624

Monadnocks, 145

Monoclinal shifting, 127

Monocline, 504

Monzonite, 471

Moon, 3, 598

Moraines, dump, 301 ground, 302 lateral, 266, 302 lodge, 301 medial, 266, 297 molluscan shells in, 297 push, 301 surface, 266 terminal, 266, 301 types, 301

Moselle River, intrenchment meanders, 164

Moseley, H., 322

Mosses, geologic contributions of, 656

Moulton, F. R., 565

Mountain-forming movements, 542

Mountains, serration of, 48, 50

Mount Erebus, 603

Mount Hecla, 603

Mount Shasta, 611

Mount Terror, 603

Movements of glaciers, 259, 261, 279, 313–323

Movements of sea-water, 334–342 causes of, 334–339

Movements of the earth’s body, 526–589 causes of, 551–557 continent-forming, 544 distribution in time, 545 epeirogenic, 537 folding movements, 545 minute and rapid, 526 mountain-forming, 542 orogenic, 537 periodic, 542 plateau-forming, 543 relation of vertical and horizontal, 545 slow and massive, 537

Mud-cracks, 489

Mud-flows, volcanic, 610

Mud-rain, 25

Mudstone, 471

Mügge, O., 313, 322, 323

Muir glacier, 259

Murray, Sir John, 11, 215, 325, 326, 369, 604, 655

Muscovite, 400, 464

Narrows, 141

Natural bridges, 153, 231 of Virginia, 156 on coasts, 351

Natural gases, 646

Natural levees (see Levees)

Natural oils, 646

Nebraska, volcanic dust in, 23

Nephelinite, 471

Nephelite, 400, 464

Nevadite, 471

Névé, 246

New River, 168

Newsom, J. F., 514

Niagara Falls, 139 recession of, 139

Niagara River, 120

Nicholson, A. (and Lydekker, R.), 658

Nile River, delta of, 202 material in solution in, 108 sediment carried by, 107

Nitrogen and life, 642

Nodules, 471

Nomenclature of rocks, 449 new system of, 451

Norite, 471

Normal faults, 517

North America, average elevation of, 106

Nosite, 465

Novaculite, 471

Nummulites, 661

Oblique fault, 525

Obsidian, 407, 453, 471

Ocean basins, 11 areas of, 7 connection of, 8 deposits on, 368–386 relief of bottom, 11 topography of, 326

Ocean basin segments, size of, 547

Oceanic deposits, chemical, 375 deep-sea, 368, 378–386 organic, 375, 382 shallow water, 369–378

Ocean, the, 7, 324–392 changes in, 329 composition of, 324 diastrophism in, 329 gradation in, 333 salts of, 324 volume of, 8 vulcanism in, 332 work of, 324–392

Offset with gap, 525

Offset with overlap, 525

Oldham, R. D., 534, 535

Oligoclase, 400, 465

Olivine, 400, 465

Omeose, 459

Omphacite, 465

Onyx, 471

Oolite, 435, 471, 496

Ooze, 471

Opal, 465

Ore deposits (see Ores)

O’Reilly, J. P., 538

Ore regions, origin of, 477

Ores, 428, 474–485 concentration by reprecipitation, 479 concentration by solution, 479 concentration by surface leaching, 478 “flaxseed,” 497 influence of rock walls on deposition, 484 magmatic segregation, 475 marine segregation, 476 original distribution, 475 purification by leaching, 478 residual concentration, 478

Organic processes, 638

Organic residue, 640, 641

Organic rocks, 449, 646

Original heat distribution, 559–568

Origin and descent of rocks, 393–484

Orogenic movements, 537

Orthoclase, 400, 465

Orthophyre, 471

Osars, 306

Outcrops, effects of faults on, 522

Outwash plain, 306

Overloading of streams, 177, 178, 186

Overthrust, 518

Oxbow lakes, 192, 198

Oxidation, 42, 427

Ozocerite, 465, 646

Paleontologic geology, 1

Paleontology, 1

Paraffine, 646

Peastone, 472

Peat, 406, 472

Pegmatite, 472

Pelagic deposits, 379–386 organic constituents of, 382

Pelagic fauna, 670

Pelecypods, shells of, 662

Pele’s, 618

“Pele’s hair,” 404

Pelites, 472

Peneplain, 81, 169

Penrose, R. A. F., Jr., 478

Peralkalic rocks, 458

Percaleic rocks, 458, 459

Perfemane, 455

Perfemic rocks, 454

Perfelic rocks, 456

Perferrous rocks, 459

Peridotites, 416, 453

Perlenic rocks, 456

Perlite, 408, 453, 472

Permiric rocks, 458

Permirlic rocks, 458

Permitic rocks, 457

Perolic rocks, 457

Perpolic rocks, 456

Perpotassic rocks, 458

Perpyric rocks, 457

Perquaric rocks, 456

Perrey, A., 537

Perrine, 538

Persalane, 455, 459

Persalic rocks, 454

Persodic rocks, 458

Pertilic rocks, 457

Petrifaction, 223

“Petrified turtles,” 496

Petroleum, 465

Petrology, 1, 393–485

Petrosilex, 472

Pfaff, F., 537

Phanerites, 451

Phanerocrystalline rocks, 412

Phenocrysts, 412

Philosophic geology, 1

Phonolite, 472

Photobathic fauna, 670

Photobathic zone, 670

Phyllite, 472

Physiographic geology, 1

Picrolite, 465

Pictotite, 465

Piedmontite, 465

Piedmont glacier, 254

Piedmont plain, alluvial, 183

Piracy, 160 domestic, 104 extent of, in Appalachians, 170 foreign, 104 of Kaaterskill Creek, 105 of Plaaterskill Creek, 105

Pirsson, Louis V., 412 451, 573

Pisolite, 465, 496

Pitchstones, 408, 453, 472

Plagioclase, 465

Plain, alluvial, 181, 184 graded, 169 outwash, 306

Planation, 82

Plant kingdom, geologic contributions of, 652–658

Plant life and carbon dioxide, 665

Plant societies, 667

Plants, contributions to deposits, 652–658 contribution to limestone, 654 effect on erosion, 131, 644 reference table of, 653 weathering influenced by, 112

Platte River, 187

Plaaterskill Creek, piracy of, 105

Plugs, volcanic, 591

Plumbago, 465

Plunging anticline, 155

Plutonic rocks, 472

Polar glaciers, 254

Poincaré, H., 576

Polic rocks, 456

Polmitic rocks, 457

Ponding of streams, 171

Po River, delta of, 202 sediment carried by, 107

Porphyries, 453

Porphyrite, 472

Porphyritic rocks, 411

Porphyry, 472

Posepny, F., 474

Potash, in sea-water, 377

Pot holes, 140

Potomac River, 168 sediment carried by, 107

Potonié, H., 652

Powell, J. W., 519, 521

Precipitation, 50 from atmosphere, 51 from solution, 41, 225, 239, 375–379

Precipitation from solution, conditions influencing, 225 influenced by algæ, 225

Pressures within earth, based on Laplace’s law, 564

Prestwich, J., 203, 225

Propylite, 472

Protogine, 472

Protozoa, geologic contribution of, 660

Provincial faunas, 668

Pseudomorphs, 465

Psilomelane, 465

Psychological factors 651

Pteridophytes, geologic contribution of, 657

Pteropod ooze, 380, 382

“Pulpit rocks,” 350

Pumice, 406, 453, 472

Push moraine, 301

Puzzalana, 405

Pyrite, 465

Pyroclastic rocks, 404, 406, 472

Pyrolic rocks, 457

Pyroxene, 400, 465

Pyroxenite, 417, 452, 472

Quaquaversal dip, 504

Quardofelic rocks, 456

Quarfelic rocks, 456

Quartz, 466

Quartzite, 447, 472

Quartz-leucophyres, 453

Quartzophyres, 453

Quartz-porphyries, 453

Radiolarian ooze, 380, 382, 425, 661

Rain, amount of, 51 erosion by, 57 mechanical work of, 51

Rain-drop impressions, 490

Rainfall, effect on erosion, 128

Ransome, F. L., 130, 513

Rapids, development of, 133, 146

Rate of erosion, conditions affecting, 123

Ravine, 64

Raymond, R. W., 474

Reade, T. M., 225, 366, 561, 572

Reconstructed glacier, 256

Red clay, 380, 383, 384

Red mud, 380

Red River of Louisiana, 188

Reid, H. F., 256, 259, 261

Regolith, 400, 472

Rejuvenation of streams, 162–163 criteria of, 164, 165, 166

Relief, of lithosphere, 11 of ocean basins, 11 representation on maps, 30

Relief of pressure, a cause of volcanic action, 627

Rendu, L. C., 321, 322

Restrictive evolution, 672

Reversed fault, 517, 521

Reyer, E., 636

Rhine River, material in solution in, 108

Rhizopoda, geologic contributions of, 660

Rhone River, delta of, 203 material in solution in, 108 sediment carried by, 107

Rhyolite, 472

Rhyolitic structure, of lavas, 41

Ricard, T. A., 474

Richthofen, Baron von, 23, 604, 614, 615

Rigidity, distribution of, 578

Rill-marks, 372, 489

Rink, H., 248

Ripple-marks, 371, 489 due to wind, 37

Rio Grande River, sediment of, 107

River lakes, 198

River erosion (see Stream erosion)

Roanoke River, 168

Roches Moutonnées, 304

Rock breaking, by changes of temperature, 44, 49

Rocks, alferric, 454 alkalicalcic, 458 alkalimirlic, 458 alterations of, 426 aqueous, 467 arenaceous, 468 autoclastic, 444 calcimiric, 458 “chimney,” 350 chloritic, 431 classification and nomenclature, 449 clastic, 468 crystalline, 16 determination of age, 15 disruption by hydration, 111 docalcic, 458 dofemic, 454 doferrous, 459 dohemic, 457 dolenic, 456 domagnesic, 459 domalkalic, 458 domilic, 457 domiric, 458 domirlic, 458 domitic, 457 dopolic, 456 dopotassic, 458 dopyric, 457 doquaric, 456 dosalic, 454 dosodic, 458 dotilic, 457 eolian, 469 femic, 454 glassy, 406 holocrystalline, 412 hypogene, 470 igneous, 16, 393, 498 leading elements of, 396 lendofelic, 456 lenfelic, 456 magnesiferrous, 459 meta-igneous, 471 metamorphic, 16 mirlic, 458 mitic, 456 organic, 646 origin and descent of, 393–485 peralkalic, 458 percalcic, 458, 459 perfelic, 456 perfemic, 454 perferrous, 459 perhemic 457 perlenic, 456 permagnesic, 459 permiric, 458 permerlic, 458 permitic, 457 perolic, 457 perpolic, 456 perpotassic, 458 perquaric, 456 persalic, 454 persodic, 458 pertilic, 457 perpyric, 457 phanerocrystalline, 412 plutonic, 472 polic, 456 polmitic, 457 porphyritic, 411 precipitate, 427 “pulpit,” 350 pyroclastic, 404, 406, 472 quardofelic, 456 quarfelic, 456 salfemic, 454 salic, 454 secondary, 420 sedimentary, 422, 486 sodipotassic, 458 solution of, 427 specific heat of, 552 stratified, 14 talcose, 431 tilhemic, 457

Rock terraces, 140, 204

Rock waste, 12

Roots, wedge-work of, 112, 131, 150

Rotation of earth, change in rate of, 575 effect on stream erosion, 194

Rotation and vulcanism, 604

Roth, J., 108

Running water (see Streams)

Run-off, 59

Russell, I. C., 108, 118, 151, 172, 194, 203, 232, 256, 283, 388, 392, 636

Rutile, 466

Saint Vincent, 605

Salfemane, 455

Salfemic rocks, 454

Saline lakes (see Salt lakes)

Saline springs, 235

Salisbury, R. D., 203, 256

Salt lakes, 391 composition of, 372 deposits in, 388

Salts, deposition of, 375–378 in sea-water, 324–326

Sand, eolian, 26–37

Sandstone, 422, 434, 472 stratification of, 487

Sandstone dikes, 514

Sanidine, 466

Sapping, 127, 133

Satinspar, 466

Schist, 446, 472

Schistosity, 443

Schmidt, J. F. J., 537

Schoharie Creek, beheaded, 105

Scoriæ, 405, 473

Scour-and-fill, 194 of Missouri River, 195

Scrope, G. P., 636

Sea-caves, 350

Sea-cliffs, 349

Sea, the (see Ocean)

Sea-water, aperiodic movements of, 338 movements generated by attraction, 337 movements of, 334–342 salts in, 376, 377, 378

Sea-waves, caused by earthquake, 535

Secondary rocks, derivation of, 420

“Second bottoms,” 205

Secretions, 497

Sediment, carried by Danube, 107 carried by Irrawaddy, 107 carried by Mississippi, 107 carried by Nile, 107 carried by Po, 107 carried by Potomac, 107 carried by Rhone, 107 carried by Rio Grande, 107 carried by Uruguay, 107 character of, influenced by land vegetation, 645 deposited by rivers, 65, 177–204 deposited in lakes, 387 deposited in sea, 368–386 effect on corrasion, 120 effect on falls, 137 how carried by streams, 116

Sedimentary rocks, classes of, 422 structural features of, 486

Sedimentation and vulcanism, 629

Seed-plants, 657

Segregation of ores, 475

Seiches, 386

Seine River, intrenched meanders of, 164

Selenite, 466

Septaria, 473, 495

Serpentine, 431, 466, 473

Serpentine kames, 306

Seward, A. C., 652

Shale, 422, 434, 473 stratification of, 487

Shaler, N. S., 227, 349, 357 (and Davis, W. M.), 256

Shallow-water deposits, 368, 369, 379 characteristics of, 373 topography of, 374

Shearing of glacier ice, 317

Sheet erosion, 59

Shell marl, 655

Shore currents, 342 deposition by, 355

Shore deposition and coastal configuration, 363

Shore drift, 355

Shore ice, 389

Shoshone Falls, 135

Siderite, 425, 466

Silicified wood, 439

Silicious deposits, 425

Sills, 446, 592

Sketcherly, S. B., 23

Slate, 473

Slaty structure, 441

Slichter, C. S., 221, 563, 576

Slumps, 231

Smaragdite, 466

Smith, E. A., 543

Snow-fields, 244 distribution of, 244

Snowflakes, forms of, 310

Snow-line, 245 in Andes, 246 in Antarctica, 246 in Greenland, 246 in Himalayas, 246

Snow, work of, 244

Soapstone, 431, 473

Sodipotassic rocks, 458

Solms-Laubach, 652

Solution, by ground-water, 222 by rivers, 108, 122

Solution of rocks, 427

Solvent action, location of, 480

Sorby, H. C., 367

Source of streams, 178

Spatter cones, 609, 610

Specific heat of rock, 552

Spermatophytes, geologic contribution of, 657

Sphenophyllum, 657

Sphericity, a factor in deformation, 580

Spherosiderite, 466

Spinel, 466

Spit, the, 357

Sponges, secretions of, 661

Sporadosiderites, 5

“Spouting horn,” 351

Springs, calcareous, 235 chalybeate, 235 cold, 234 common, 235 deep, 234 intermittent, 235 medicinal, 235 mineral, 235 saline, 235 shallow, 234 sulphur, 235

Stalactite, 437, 473 formation of, 227

Stalagmite 437, 473

St. Anthony Falls, 136

Stapff, F. M. 388

Staurolite, 466

Steam discharge from volcanoes, 635

Steatite, 431, 466, 473

Stevenson, D., 341, 344, 370

Stoping, 632

Stoss side, 299

Strachey, R., 51

Stratification, 486

Stratified rocks, 14

Stratigraphic geology, 1

Stratigraphy and fossils, 647

Stratigraphy and paleontology, 647

Stream erosion, 56–177 economic effects of, 108 influenced by rock, 124 influenced by declivity, 123 influenced by structure, 125, 127 topography developed by, 92

Streams, abrasion by, 119 adjustment in Appalachians, 148 adjustment of, 146, 147 affected by rotation of earth, 194 aggradational work of, 177–204 antecedent, 169, 171 characteristics of aggrading, 179, 187 compared with glaciers, 262 consequent, 78 corrasion by, 119 cross-currents in, 117 decrease in size of, 179, 180 deposition by, 177 drowning of, 170 effect of change of level on, 161, 171 erosion by, 57–177 floods of, 109 ice of, 118 intermittent, 71, 72 mature, 86 mechanical work of, 226 migration from synclines to anticlines, 159 mineral matter in solution in, 225 old age of, 89 overloading of, 178, 179, 186 permanent, 70 piracy of, 103 ponding of, 171 relation of width to meander belt, 193 solution by, 108, 122 sources of, 178 struggle for existence among, 100 superimposed, 150 topographic adjustment of, 162, 163, 197 transportation by, 115, 116 velocity of, 115 young, 85

Stream-terraces, 204–212

Stream velocity, effect on transportation, 115

Stream work, 57–212

Stress-accumulation, 583, 588

Striæ, 283

Strike, 501

Strike fault, 522

Stromboli, 636

Structural adjustment of valleys, 147

Structural features of rocks, 486–525 arising from disturbance, 500 of igneous rocks, 498 of sedimentary rock, 486

Structural geology, 1, 486

Structural valleys, 77

Structure of glacier ice, 308

Structure of rock, influence on erosion, 125

Struggle for existence among valleys, 100

Subaërial erosion, 58

Sub-atomic forces, causes of crustal movement, 556

Subdivisions of geology, 1

Subglacial load, 282

Subsidence, effect on coast-lines, 331

Suess, Edw., 538

Sulphur, 466

Sulphur springs, 235

Sun-cracks, 373, 490

Superglacial load, 282

Superimposed streams, 150

Surface moraines, 266

Susquehanna River, 168

Switzerland, snow-fields of, 245

Syenites, 415, 452, 473

Syncline, 157, 504

Synclinoria, 504

Syssiderites, 5

Tachylite, 473

Tait, P. G., 552, 572, 573 (and Thompson, J.), 560, 579

Talc, 466

Talcose rock, 431

Talus, 112

Talus cone, 182

Talus glacier, 233, 232

Tarr, R. S., 165

Temperature, at centre of earth, 571 atmospheric, 43, 46, 49 based on Laplace’s law, 564 effect on erosion, 129 effects of changes on rocks, 44 expansion and contraction due to changes of, 44 in excavations, 569 of interior of earth, 559–570 of lavas, 615, 627

Tennessee River, history of, 168–169

Tension joints, 514

Terminal moraine, 266, 301

Terraces, stream, 204–212 flood-plain, 205 rock, 140, 204 termini of, 210 wave-built, 363 wave-cut, 351, 353

Terrigenous deposits, in sea, 379

Thallophytes, geologic contribution of, 653

Thames River, 224 material in solution in, 108

Thibetan plateau, 548

Thompson, James, 322, 560, 579

Thompson, W. G., 119

“Thorofares,” 358

Thrust-fault, 517, 518

Tides, 4, 338 effect on rotation, 4

Tilden, W. A., 620

Tilhemic rocks, 457

Till, 473

Titanite, 467

Todd, J. E., 195

Topaz, 467

Topographic adjustment of streams, 162, 163, 197

Topographic effects of glacial erosion, 287

Topographic effects of ground-water, 231

Topographic map, explanation of, 30

Topographic maturity, 86

Topographic old age, 89

Topographic youth, 86

Topography, developed by river erosion, 92 dune, 32 landslide, 231 mature, 86 of alluvial deposits, 196 of glaciers, 266 of ocean bottom, 326 of shallow-water deposits, 374 youthful 86

Top-set beds, 202

Trachyte, 473

Transportation, 110 by glaciers, 281 by ocean currents, 367 by streams, 115, 119 by waves, 354 by wind, 22, 25

Trap, 419, 473

Travertine, 473

Trees, uprooting of, 40

Tremolite, 447, 467

Tributaries, development of, 78 position of, 79 topographic adjustment of, 197

Tripoli, 661

Tripolite, 426

Trout creek, 193

Tschermak, G., 538

Tufa (see Tuffs)

Tufa cones, 611

Tufa deposits, 611

Tuffs, 404, 434, 473

Tuscarora deep, 548

Two Medicine River, 154, 157

Tyndall, J., and Huxley, T. H., 322

Udden, J. A., 22

Uinta Mountains, lateral moraines of, 303

Underground water (see Ground-water)

Undertow, 341 deposition by, 355 erosion by, 342, 347

United States Geological Survey, VI., 32

Upham, W., 388

Uprooting of trees, 40

Uralite, 431

Uruguay River, sediment carried by, 107

Usiglio, 375

Valleys, affected by folds, 154 antecedent (see Streams, antecedent) canoe-shaped, 155 consequent, 78 courses of, 77 development of, 63, 70, 73, 80 hanging, 164, 290 limits of growth, 67 oldest parts, 76 profiles of, 66 relations to lakes, 74 slopes of, 94 special forms of, 94 structural, 77 struggle for existence among, 100

Van Hise, C. R., 219, 434, 448, 474, 479, 504, 543, 555, 570

Vegetation, effect on dunes, 29 effect on erosion, 131, 644 effect on sediments, 645 effect on weathering, 131

Veins, 223, 428, 511

Vermes, geologic contribution of, 662

Vermeule, C. C., 109

Vertebrata, geologic contribution of, 663

Vesuvius, 605

Virginia, natural bridge of, 156

Viridite, 467

Volcanic action, causes of, 623–633 activity, periodicity of, 607 ash, 23, 404, 592, 617 bombs, 406, 592, 617 cinders, 592 cones, 500 débris in sea, 381 dust (see Volcanic ash) eruptions, 594 and atmospheric pressure, 606 and tidal strain, 607 types of, 593 gases, 617–623 action of, 617 kinds of, 618 proportions of, 620, 622 sources of, 619, 620, 621, 633 glass (see Obsidian) in sea, 381 mud, 380 flows of, 610 neck, 500 plug, 500 rocks, 395–418 residual gases in, 619 smoke, 592, 617

Volcanoes, 599–611 coincidence in eruption of, 606 cones of, 608 distribution of, in curved lines, 603 distribution of, in latitude, 603 distribution of, in relation to crustal movements, 601, 604, 628 distribution of, in relation to land and sea, 599 distribution of, in time, 599 independence of, 605, 623 periodicity of, 607 relations of, 604–607 relations to one another, 605

Volume of ocean, 325

Vuggs, 437

Vulcanism, 2, 590–637 causes of, 623–633 effects on coast-lines, 332 in ocean, 332

Vulcanism and deep sedimentation, 629 ground-water, 635 rotation, 603

Wacke, 422, 473, 645

Wad, 467

Walcott, C. D., 194, 246, 371, 438, 440, 441, 502, 503, 509

Wallace, A. R., 665, 668

Walther, J., 50, 670

Warming, E., 667

Warping, effect of, on streams, 171 of earth’s crust, 526, 541, 542

Wasatch Mountains, lateral moraines of, 303

Washington, H. S., 412, 451, 573

Waste of glaciers, 273

Water (see Streams, Ground-water, Ocean, etc.) amount of, 7 geologic activity of, 8

Water-gaps, 141, 167

Waterfalls, 132 development of, 133 Minnehaha, 137 Niagara, 139 Shoshone, 135 St. Anthony, 135 Upper Yosemite, 138 Yellowstone, 135

Waterfalls and sediment, 137

Water-lime, 473

Water-table, 71, 215

Water-vapor, climatic effects of, 643

Wave-built terraces, 363

Wave-cut terraces, 351, 352

Wave erosion, 342–354 range of, 346 topographic features developed by, 349

Wave erosion and horizontal configuration, 353, 363, 364

Wave-marks, 490

Wave-motion, 339

Waves, 339 deposition by, 355 erosion by, 342–354 force of, 344 transportation by, 354 work of, 342–366

Weathering, 54, 110, 226 affected by life, 644 aided by plants, 112 aided by hot vapors, 113 effect of gravity, 112 effect of joints, 151, 153 importance of, in valley growth, 114

Wedgework of ice, 45, 48, 150 of roots, 112, 131, 150

Weed, W. H., 225, 237, 474, 656

Wells, artesian, 242 flowing, 234, 242, 243

Wheeling well, temperature of, 569

White glacier, 263

Whitfield, J. E. (and Gooch, F. A.), 236

Williams, H. S., 658

Willis, B., 157, 168, 169, 257, 344, 355, 365, 516, 543, 550

Winchell, H. V., 474

Wind, abrasion by, 38 effects on plants, 40 movements of sea, generated by, 336 transports organisms, 41 work of, 21–41

Wind-blown dust, 22

Wind-blown sands, 25

Wind-ripples, 37

Winslow, A., 474

Wisconsin River, dells of, 152

Woodward, R. S., 560, 581

Work of glaciers, 281

Wyandotte Cave, 227, 228

Yazoo River, 188

Yellowstone Park, geysers of, 238 hot springs of, 225

Yellowstone River, canyon of, 100 falls of, 135

Yukon River, delta of, 202

Zeiller, 652

Zeolites, 428, 467

Zircon, 467

Zittel, K. von, 658, 659

Zone of fracture, 219, 427

FOOTNOTES:

The Earth. Johnson’s Encyclopædia. See also statement of Murray in Smithsonian An. Rept., 1899, p. 312. Reprint from Brit. A. A. S., Dover meeting, 1899, and Scot. Geog. Mag., Vol. XV, 1899, p. 511.

Its specific gravity as a whole is about 5.57, and the specific gravity of its outer portion is about 2.7.

For an excellent study of the erosion, transportation, and sedimentation performed by the atmosphere, see Udden, Jour. of Geol., Vol. II, pp. 318–331. See also Pop. Sci. Mo., September, 1896.

The Eruption of Krakatoa. Committee of the Royal Society, 1888.

A brief account of the influence of the dust on sunsets is found in Davis’s Elementary Meteorology, pp. 85 and 119.

Science, New Ser., Vol. IV, p. 816, 1896.

Von Richtofen. “China.”

Sketcherley and Kingsmill. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. LI, 1895, pp. 238–254.

Chamberlin. Jour. of Geol., Vol. V, p. 795.

A thoroughgoing study of the Formation of Sand Dunes (by V. Cornish) is to be found in the Geog. Jour., Vol. IX, 1897, pp. 278–309.

Blanford. Geology of India, 2d ed., p. 455 et seq.

Cornish, loc. cit.

Cornish, loc. cit., p. 294.

Diller states (17th Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, p. 450) that on the coast of Oregon the slope of dunes is sometimes 40°.

From folio preface, U. S. Geol. Surv.

Credner. Elemente der Geologie, 6th ed., p. 271.

Merrill. Rocks, Rock Weathering, and Soils, p. 295.

Cowles. The Ecological Relations of the Vegetation of the Sand Dunes of Lake Michigan. Botanical Gazette, Vol. XXVII, 1899. An excellent study of the relations of sand dunes and vegetation.

For example, in the Big Horn Mountains of Wyoming.

It should be noted that it is the change of temperature of the rock surface, not the change of temperature of the air above it, which is to be considered. Many data concerning temperature changes are to be found in Bartholomew’s Atlas of Meteorology.

Buckley. Wisconsin Survey, Bull. IV, 1899, pp. 81–3.

Livingstone has reported that the temperature of rock surfaces in Africa sometimes reaches 137° Fahr. during the day, and cools sufficiently at night to split off blocks of 200 lbs. weight.

Buckley. Surv. of Wis., Bull. IV, pp. 19, 20.

For an excellent discussion of erosion in dry regions see Walther’s Die Denudation in der Wüste.

On the assumption that condensation takes place at an average elevation of 3000 feet, it has been estimated that the force necessary to evaporate and diffuse the moisture which falls as rain and snow would be equivalent to 300,000,000,000 horse-power constantly in operation. (Strachey, Lectures on Geography, p. 145.)

McGee. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. VIII, pp. 87–112.

For a discussion of convex and concave erosion slopes see Bain, Geol. Surv. of Ia., Vol. VI, p. 449.

Great rivers, like the Mississippi, cut their channels somewhat below sea-level, but probably not by an amount exceeding the depth of the stream itself (see p. 79).

Davis. Jour. of Geol., Vol. X, p. 87.

Ibid., p. 77 et seq.

In regions where canyons are common, the term is often applied to all valleys.

Humphreys and Abbot. Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River.

From Russell’s Rivers of North America, p. 78.

Alkaline carbonates considered as sodium carbonates.

Carbonic acid by difference.

Babb. Science, Vol. XXI, p. 343. 1893.

Quoted by Mason. Water-supply, p. 204.

Sot. Geog. Mag., Vol. III, p. 76. 1887.

Acids and bases combined according to the principles indicated by Bunsen.

Chemical Geology, Vol. I, pp. 76, 77, English ed., 1854.

Allgemeine und chemische Geologie, Vol. I, pp. 456, 457. 1879.

Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 79.

For disastrous floods of the lower Mississippi, see Johnson, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II, pp. 20–25. For effect of precipitation and forests on floods, see Russell’s Meteorology, pp. 198–217, and Vermeule, Report on Water Supply, Geol. Surv. of N. J.

An excellent discussion of this subject is given by Gilbert in The Henry Mountains, pp. 99 et seq., and more briefly in the Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XII, p. 85 et seq. 1876.

Jour. of Geol., Vol. IV, p. 718. An excellent summary of the principles of Rock Weathering.

Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 17.

W. G. Thompson. Nature, Vol. I, p. 555, 1870. The Matapediac River, N. B. Cited by Russell in Rivers of North America, p. 25.

Dutton. Tertiary History of the Grand Canyon District, Mono. II, U. S. Geological Survey.

The terms rapids, falls, and cataracts are rather loosely used. Many moderate rapids are incorrectly called falls. The “Falls of the Ohio” is an example. The term cataract is often applied to very steep rapids or falls.

Gilbert, article on Niagara Falls, in Physiography of the United States.

Gilbert. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XII. p. 99, 1876.

For a brief account of this fall see Gilbert in Physiography of the United States.

Gilbert. Science, Vol. VIII, p. 205, 1886.

See Campbell, Jour. Geol., Vol. IV, pp. 567, 657.

Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 280. The influence of joints on drainage is further discussed by Hobbs, Jour. Geol., Vol. IX, p. 469.

See Willis. The Northern Appalachians, in Physiography of the United States.

This process of adjustment has been well described by Davis in The Rivers and Valleys of Pennsylvania, Natl. Geog. Mag., Vol. I, p. 211 et seq.

This sort of adjustment may be called topographic adjustment. A tributary is in topographic adjustment when its gradient is harmonious with that of its main.

Davis. The Seine, the Meuse and the Moselle. Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol. VII, pp. 181–202, and 228–238. An article which throws much light on the behavior of rivers.

Another view has been advocated by Tarr, Am. Geol. Vol. XXI, pp. 351–370.

Campbell. Bull. Geol. Soc. of Am., Vol. XIV, p. 277.

Willis. Physiography of the United States. The Northern Appalachians.

For excellent accounts of the rivers of the Appalachian Mountains see Davis, Rivers of Northern New Jersey, Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol. II, pp. 81–110; and Rivers of Pennsylvania, op. cit., pp. 183–253; Willis, The Northern Appalachians, Physiography of the United States, pp. 169–202; Hayes, the Southern Appalachians, op. cit., pp. 305–336; Hayes and Campbell, The Geomorphology of the Southern Appalachians, Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol. VI, pp. 63–126, and Hayes, Physiography of the Chattanooga District, 19th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. II, pp. 1–58.

This is the case at Davis and Lone Star. Capt Howell, Miss. Riv. Commission.

Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 279.

Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 279.

Hayes. Physiography of the Chattanooga District, 19th Ann. Rep., U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. II, pp. 9–58. See, also, Hayes and Campbell, Geomorphology of the Southern Appalachians, Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol. VI, pp. 63–126.

Figs. 165–168 are based on reports of Hayes, and Hayes and Campbell, already referred to. Drawn by E. S. Bastin.

A question might be raised in this case as to what should be called the source. A spring issues from beneath the surface and flows away in a stream. The stream is said to begin where the water appears at the surface, though in some cases the water of the spring was a subsurface stream before it reached the surface. Water escaping from beneath a glacier as a stream may likewise be considered a spring at the point of its issue.

Davis. Science, Vol. X, p. 142, 1887.

L. C. Johnson. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II, pp. 20–25, 1891.

Jefferson. Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol. XIII, pp. 373–84.

According to map published by the Mississippi River Commission in 1887.

Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 114.

Gilbert. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXVII, 1884, pp. 427–34.

Cooley. Rept. U. S. Engineers for 1879–80, Pt. II, pp. 1060 and 1071.

Gerber. Cited by Todd. Bull. 158, U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 150, 151.

Chamberlin. Jour. of Geol., Vol. X, pp. 747–754.

For an excellent discussion of deltas, see Gilbert, Fifth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., pp 104–8. Also Lake Bonneville, Monograph I, U. S. Geol. Surv. (same article).

Davis. Physical Geography, p. 294.

Humphreys and Abbot. Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River.

Corthell. Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol. VIII, p. 351, 1897.

Russell. Rivers of North America, p. 132.

Prestwich. Chemical and Physical Geology, Vol. I, p. 85.

Geike. Text-book of Geology, 3d ed., p. 402.

Medlicott and Blanford, Geology of India. Chap. XVII; Medlicott, Records of the Geological Survey of India, 1881; Oldham, Geology of India, 2d ed., Chap. XVII; and Ferguson, Q. J. G. S., Vol. XIX, pp. 321–54. The extent of this and other deltas is variously stated, probably because it is difficult to determine the exact position of its head and borders.

Dana. Manual of Geology, 4th ed., p. 198.

Salisbury and Kümmel. Lake Passaic. Ann. Rept. of the State Geologist of New Jersey, 1893, and Jour. of Geol., Vol. III. p. 533.

Gilbert. Lake Bonneville, Mono. I, U. S. Geol. Surv.

For discussions of terraces see Gilbert’s Henry Mountains, p. 126; Davis’ River Terraces in New England, Bull. of the Mus. of Comp. Zool., Geol. Series, Vol. V, pp. 282–346; and Dodge, Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist., Vol. XXVI, pp. 257–73.

Davis, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Geol. Ser., Vol. V.

This point has recently been emphasized by Davis, loc. cit., pp. 282–346.

Murray. Scot. Geog. Mag., Vol. III, p. 70, 1887.

Hoskins. 16th Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 853.

Van Hise. Principles of North American Pre-Cambrian Geology, 16th Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv.

For a full discussion of this subject see King, 19th Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. II, and Slichter, Water Supply and Irrigation, Paper No. 67, U. S. Geol. Surv.

For tables see Buckley, Building and Ornamental Stones, Bull. IV, Wis. Surv., and Merrill, Stones for Building and Decoration, and various Survey Reports.

It is probable that the porosity decreases in more than an arithmetic ratio, both because the deeper rocks are not of porous kinds, and because of the pressure which tends to close openings.

Slichter (op. cit., p. 15) estimates that the ground-water is sufficient in amount to cover the earth’s surface to a depth of 3000 to 3500 feet. Earlier estimates gave still higher figures (see Delesse, Bull. Soc. Geol., France, Second Series, Vol. XIX, 1861–62, p. 64).

Geikie. Text-book of Geology, 3d ed., p. 367.

Ibid., p. 378.

Prestwich, Q. J. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXVIII, p. lxvii.

Reade. Liverpool Geol. Soc., 1876 and 1884.

This is not true in the case of minerals, such as lime carbonate, dissolved under the influence of gases in solution in the water.

Weed. The Formation of Hot Springs Deposits. Excursion to the Rocky Mountains. Compte Rendu. Fifth Session of the International Geological Congress, p. 360, and Ninth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 613–76. Also B. M. Davis, Science, Vol. VI, pp. 145–57, 1897.

For a racy and interesting account of caverns see Shaler’s Aspects of the Earth.

Russell has emphasized this point in 20th Ann. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. II, pp. 193–202, and Cross, 21st Ann. U. S. Geol. Surv., Part II, pp. 129–150.

Gooch and Whitfield. Bull. 47, U. S. Geol. Surv.

Copied from Russell, Mono., XI. U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 176.

Correction for specific gravity only approximate, as specific gravity was not given in original analyses.

As carbonates.

As carbonate.

As oxide.

As carbonate.

As sodium chloride.

As fluoride of calcium.

Oxygen added to SiO₂ to form SiO₃ of Na₂SiO₃.

Liters of gas thrown off per liter of water.

Weed. Ninth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 613–76, and Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXXVII, 1889, pp. 351–59.

Geikie. Geological Sketches, pp. 206–38. Hayden. Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. III, 1872, pp. 105–15 and 161–76.

Chamberlin. Geol. of Wis., Vol. I, pp. 689–97, and Fifth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 131–73. The former a brief, and the latter an elaborate, exposition of the principles involved.

Russell. Nat’l Geog. Mag., Vol. III, pp. 127 and 181.

For an account of experiments illustrating the mobility of ice see Aitkin, Am. Jour. Sci., Vols. V, p. 303, and XXXIV, p. 149, and Nature, Vol. XXXIX, p. 203.

Jour. of Geol., Vol. III, p. 888.

The following list includes many of the more available articles and treatises on existing glaciers; others are referred to in the following pages.

Alaskan glaciers: Reid, (1) Nat. Geog. Mag., Vol. IV, pp. 19–55; (2) Sixteenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., Part I, pp. 421–461. Russell, (1) Nat. Geog. Mag., Vol. III, pp. 176–188; (2) Jour. of Geol., Vol. I, pp. 219–245.

Glaciers in the United States: Russell, (1) Fifth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 309–355; (2) Eighteenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., Part II, pp. 379–409; (3) Glaciers of North America.

Greenland glaciers: Chamberlin, Jour. of Geol., Vol. II, pp. 768–788; Vol. III, pp. 61–69, 198–218, 469–480, 565–582, 668–681, and 833–843; Vol. IV, pp. 582–592. Salisbury, Jour. of Geol., Vol. III, pp. 875–902, and Vol. IV, pp. 769–810.

Glaciers in general: Shaler and Davis, Illustrations of the Earth’s Surface; Forbes, Norway and its Glaciers, and Theory of Glaciers; Heim, Handbuch der Gletscherkunde.

Reid. Natl. Geog. Mag., Vol. IV, p. 44.

Rink’s Greenland.

Reid. Variations of Glaciers. Jour. of Geol., Vols. III, p. 278; V, p. 378; VI, p. 473; VII, p. 217; VIII, p. 154; IX, p. 250, and X, p. 313.

For example, in the Middle Blase Dale glacier, Island of Disco, Jour. of Geol., Vol. II, p. 784, and in the Bowdoin glacier (Fig. 242).

Centimeter-gramme-second system. The rate of conductivity has not been very accurately determined.

Russell. Jour. of Geol., Vol. III, p. 823.

Geikie. The Great Ice Age, 3d ed., p. 529.

Carried out by C. E. Peet and E. C. Perisho under the direction of one of the authors.

Ueber die Plasticität der Eiskrystalle. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, etc., 1895, Bd. II, p. 211.

On the Plasticity of Glaciers and other Ice. Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. XLIV, 1888, pp. 331–67 (with D. A. Kidd); Vol. XLVIII, 1890, pp. 259, 260; Vol. XLIX, 1891, pp. 323–43.

Grönland-Expedition der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, 1891–93, Bd. I, p. 491 et seq.

References on glacier structure and motion.—L. Agassiz, Études sur les Glaciers, Neuchâtel, 1840. Rendu, Théorie des Glaciers de la Savoie, Soc. Roy. Acad., Savoie, Mém. 1840 (in English, ed. by Geo. Forbes, London, 1874). J. de Charpentier, Essai sur les Glaciers et le terrain erratique du Basin du Rhone, Lausanne, 1841. F. J. Hugi, Ueber das Wesen der Gletscher und Wintereise in dem Eismeer, Stuttgart, 1842. R. Mallet, The Mechanism of Glaciers, Jour. Geol. Soc. Dublin, Vol. I, p. 317; On the Plasticity of Glacier Ice, Jour. Geol. Soc. Dublin, 1845, Vol. III, p. 122; On the Brittleness and Non-plasticity of Glacier Ice, Phil. Mag., XXVI, p. 586. James Thompson, On the Plasticity of Ice as Manifested in Glaciers, Roy. Soc. Proc., Vol. 8, 1857, pp. 455–58. J. Tyndall and T. H. Huxley, On the Structure and Motion of Glaciers, Phil. Trans., 1857, Vol. CXLVII, p. 327. J. D. Forbes, Occasional Papers on the Theory of Glaciers, Edinburgh, 1859. W. Hopkins, On the Theory of the Motion of Glaciers, Phil. Trans., 1862, p. 677; Phil. Mag., 1863, Vol. XXV, p. 224. J. Tyndall, Forms of Water, New York, 1872; The Glaciers of the Alps, London, 1861. James Croll, On the Physical Cause of the Motion of Glaciers, Phil. Mag., 1869, Vol. 38, pp. 201–6. A. Heim, On Glaciers, Phil. Mag., 1871, Vol. 41, pp. 485–508; Handbuch der Gletscherkunde, 1885. H. Moseley, On the Cause of the Descent of Glaciers, Br. Assoc. Rept., 1860, Pt. 2, p. 48; also Phil. Mag., 1869, Vol. 37, pp. 229, 363; Vol. 39, p. 241; Vol. 42, p. 138; Vol. 43, p. 38. Ch. Grad, La Constitution et le movement des Glaciers, Revue Sci., 1872. H. J. Rink, Danish Greenland, 1877. R. M. Deeley, A Theory of Glacial Motion, Phil. Mag., 1888, Vol. 25, pp. 136–64. J. C. McConnel, On the Plasticity of an Ice Crystal, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Vol. 48, 1890, pp. 256–60; ibid., Vol. 49, 1891, pp. 323–43. O. Mügge, Über die Plasticität der Eiskrystalle, Nachr. k. Ges. d. Wiss., Göttingen, 1895, pp. 1–4. R. M. Deeley and George Fletcher, The Structure of Glacier Ice and its Bearings on Glacier Motion, Geol. Mag. (London), Decade 4, Vol. 2, 1895, pp. 152–62. T. C. Chamberlin, Presidential address before the Geol. Soc. Am., Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. VI, February 1895, pp. 199–220. Reid, Mechanics of Glaciers, Jour. Geol., Vol. IV, 1896, p. 912. Erich von Drygalski, Grönland-Expedition der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, 1891–93, Vol. I, 1897.

Much information on these and other points is to be found in the following books: Wild’s Thalassa; Thompson’s Depths of the Sea; Barker’s Deep Sea Soundings, and Maury’s Physical Geography; Agassiz’ The Three Cruises of the Blake, and the Challenger Reports give much more detailed information concerning these and other matters.

Dittmar, Challenger Reports, Physics and Chemistry, Vol. I, p. 204.

For a discussion of the way in which this gas is held in solution, see Tolman, Jour. of Geol., Vol. VII, pp. 598–618.

Murray, Scot. Geogr. Mag., Vol. IV, p. 39.

Murray, Scot. Geogr. Mag., Vol. III, p. 76.

Ibid., p. 70.

Limited areas of the ocean bottom are actually concave upward; that is, they are basins in the more commonly accepted sense of the term (see Chapter IX).

J. Geikie. Earth Sculpture, p. 329.

Murray. Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. XV, p. 507.

Lindenkohl. Science, Vol. X, 1899, p. 807.

This does not hold for tropical latitudes.

National Geographic Magazine, Vol. XI, pp. 377–392.

For causes of ocean-currents, see Croll’s Climate and Time; Proc. Roy. Soc., 1869–73, and Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc., 1871–77.

In the following pages concerning the waves and their work Gilbert’s classic discussion of shore features, in the Fifth Annual Report of the U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 80–100, is freely drawn on. Another incisive discussion of certain shore phenomena is that of Fenneman, Jour. of Geol., Vol. X, pp. 1–32.

Dana. Manual of Geology, 4th ed., p. 213.

Delesse. Lithologie des Mers de France. Cited by Geikie, Text-book of Geology, 3d ed., p. 438.

Sir G. Airy. Encyclopedia Metropolitana, Art. Waves. Cited by Geikie, loc. cit., p. 438.

Stevenson. Treatise on Harbors.

Willis. Jour. of Geol., Vol. I, p. 481.

Stevenson. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. XVI, p. 25. Treatise on Harbors, p. 42. Quoted by Geikie, Text-book of Geology, p. 437.

Geikie. Text-book of Geology, 3d ed., p. 437.

Brit. Assoc. Rept., 1850, p. 26.

Davis. Physical Geography, p. 354.

Dana. Manual of Geology, 4th ed., p. 219.

Shaler. Sea and Land, p. 29.

Gulliver, Shore Line Topography: Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., Vol. XXXIV, 1899, pp. 151–258. A valuable study of shore-line topography.

Willis. Jour. of Geol., Vol. I, p. 481.

See Gilbert. Topographic Features of Lake Shores, 5th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv.

Shaler, Sea Coast Swamps of the U. S., 6th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv.; and Merrill, Pop. Sci. Mo., Oct., 1890.

Willis. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. IX, p. 113, and Tacoma, Wash., Folio, U. S. Geol. Surv.

Agassiz. Three Cruises of the Blake, Vol. I, p. 259. Agassiz would ascribe the Blake plateau itself to the Gulf Stream, p. 138. See also Am. Jour. Sci., Vol XXXV, 1888, p. 498.

Reade. Phil. Mag., Vol. XXV (1888), p. 342.

Murray. Challenger Report, Deep Sea Deposits, pp. 184, 185.

Murray, loc. cit., pp. 187, 188.

Ibid.

Stevenson. Harbors, 2d ed., p. 15.

Usiglio. Encyclopædia Britannica. Article on Salt.

Willis. Jour. of Geol., Vol. I, p. 500, where the evidences for deposition are fully set forth.

Murray, loc. cit.

Ibid., p. 186.

Murray, loc. cit., p. 295.

Challenger Report, Deep Sea Deposits, p. 327.

Young’s Astronomy, p. 472.

Murray. Scottish Geog. Mag., Vol. XV, p. 511. An excellent summary of deep-sea deposits.

Murray, Challenger Report on Deep Sea Deposits, p. 337 et seq., and Buchanan, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. XVIII, 1892, pp. 17–39.

Challenger Report on Deep Sea Deposits, pp. 385–391. See also Jour. of Geol., Vol. II, pp. 167–172.

Forel, Compte Rendu, 1875, 1876, 1878, 1879, and P. Du Bois, 1891. Also Forel’s Lac Leman.

C. A. Davis, Journ. of Geol., Vol. VIII, pp. 485–97, and 498–503, and Vol. IX, pp. 491–506.

Russell, Lake Lahontan, Mono. XI, U. S. Geol. Surv., Chap. V; also Third Ann. Rept., pp. 211–221. Gilbert, Lake Bonneville, Mono. I, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 167.

Stapff, Zeit. deut. geol. Gesell., Vol. XVIII, pp. 86–173.

Upham, Lake Agassiz, Mono. XXV, U. S. Geol. Surv.; Salisbury and Kümmel, Lake Passaic, Rept. of the State Geologist of N. J., 1893, and Jour. of Geol., Vol. III, pp. 533–560; Gilbert, Lake Bonneville, Mono. I, U. S. Geol. Surv.; Russell, Lake Lahontan, Mono. XI, U. S. Geol. Surv.; and Mono Lake, Eighth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I.

Gilbert, Lake Bonneville, Mono. I, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 71, and Topographic Features of Lake Shores, Fifth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 109.

Buckley. Wis. Acad. of Sci., Vol. XIII, Pt. I, 1900. A study of ice ramparts formed about the shores of Lake Mendota, Wis., in 1898–99.

Copied from Russell’s Lake Lahontan, Mono. XI, U. S. Geol. Surv.

Less .04254 carbonic acid added to amount found. Average of two analyses.

Average from four analyses.

Average of two analyses.

As sesquicarbonates.

As chloride.

As peroxide.

Carbonic acid by difference.

Analyses of Rocks, Bull. 168, U. S. Geol. Surv., 1900, p. 15.

Quantitative Classification of Igneous Rocks, by Whitman Cross, Joseph P. Iddings, Louis V. Pirsson, and Henry S. Washington. 1903.

Van Hise. 16th Ann. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, pp. 589–94.

The application of these principles we owe chiefly to Van Hise: Metamorphism of Rocks and Rock Flowage, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 9, pp. 269–328.

Cross, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washington. Quantitative Classification of Igneous Rocks.

The initials f.n. (field names) are introduced to show that the term is used in the broad field sense proposed.

Added by the authors of this work.

The following definitions are given, as nearly as practicable, in accordance with present common usage, which is, however, more or less varying and inconsistent.

A comprehensive discussion of the “Genesis of Ore Deposits” may be found in Vols. XXIII and XXIV of the Trans. of the Am. Inst. of Min. Eng. (also printed with additions in book form by the Institute, 1902), in which Posepny, Emmons, Van Hise, LeConte, Blake, Becker, Ricard, Raymond, Lindgren, Weed, Vogt, Winslow, Winchell (H. V.), Church, Cazin, Adams, Keyes, Bain, Collins, Beck, and DeLaunay participated. Various phases of the leading modern views are set forth.

Chamberlin. Geol. of Wis., Vol. IV, p. 599 et seq., 1882.

Penrose. Jour. of Geol., Vol. XI, pp. 135–155, 1903.

Van Hise, Mono. XIX, U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 268–295, 1892.

Gilbert. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. X, pp. 135–140, 1898.

Branner. Jour. of Geol., Vol. VIII, pp. 481–484, 1900.

Iddings. Jour. of Geol., Vol. VI, pp. 704–710.

Daubrée. Géologie d’Expérimentale, pp. 306–372.

Crosby. American Geologist, Vol. XII, 1893, pp. 368–375.

Becker. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., Vol. X, pp. 41–75.

Van Hise. Principles of North American Pre-Cambrian Geology. 16th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, pp. 668–672.

Diller. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. I, pp. 441–442. Ibid. Hay, Vol. III, pp. 50–55; and Newsom, ibid. Vol. XIV, pp. 227–268.

Willis. Bull. Geol. Soc. of Am., Vol. XIII, pp. 331–336.

McConnell. Canada Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv., 1886, Pt. II.

Geikie. Text-book of Geology.

Becker. Geology of the Comstock Lode, Mono. III, U. S. Geol. Surv., Chapter IV.

Reference, Van Hise. Sixteenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, pp. 672–678.

Davison. Jour. of Geol., Vol. VIII, p. 301.

Nature, October 24, 1895.

Milne. The Geog. Jour., Vol. XXI, p. 1. See also Seismology, a more technical work than the same author’s Earthquakes.

Darwin. Journal of Researches, 1845, p. 303.

Oldham. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXVIII, p. 257.

Geikie. Text-book of Geology, 4th ed., p. 372.

Kotô. Jour. Coll. Sci., Japan, Vol. V, Pt. IV (1893), pp. 329, 339. Cited by Geikie, loc. cit., p. 373.

An elaborate account of this earthquake is given by Dutton, Ninth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 209–528.

Cross. Twenty-first Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. II, Chap. V.

Oldham. Report on the Indian Earthquake of June 12, 1897, p. 138. Mem. Geol. Surv. of India. Cited by Geikie, loc. cit., p. 374.

Oldham, loc. cit., p. 80.

Geikie. Text-book of Geology, 4th ed., p. 375.

Ibid., p. 376.

Forster, Seismology, 1877. Summarized in the Am. Geol., Vol. III, 1889, p. 182.

The literature of seismology is very extensive. Some of the more general treatises are the following: Mallet, Brit. Assoc., 1847, Part II, p. 30; 1850, p. 1; 1851, p. 272; 1852, p. 1; 1858, p. 1; 1861, p. 201; and The Great Neapolitan Earthquake of 1857, 2 Vols., 1862; A. Perrey, Mém. Couronn. Bruxelles, XVIII (1844), Comptes Rendus, LII, p. 146; R. Falb, Grundzüge einer Theorie der Erdbeben und Vulkanenausbrüche, Graz, 1871, and Gedanken und Studien über den Vulkanismus, etc., 1874; Pfaff, Allgemeine Geologie als exacte Wissenschaft, Leipzig, 1873, p. 224; Schmidt, Studien über Erdbeben, 2d ed., 1879, and Studien über Vulkane und Erdbeben, 1881; Dieffenbach, Neues Jahrb., 1872, p. 155; M. S. di Rossi, La Meteorologia Endogena, 2 Vols., 1879 and 1882; J. Milne, Earthquakes and other Earth-movements (contains a bibliography), 4th ed., 1898; Seismology, ibid., 1898; Dutton, Earthquakes, 1904.

Records of earthquakes have been preserved more or less fully in several countries, especially in recent years. A few of the more accessible publications where these records are found are cited below: California earthquakes, Perrine, Bull. 147, U. S. Geol. Surv.; Earthquakes of the Pacific Coast, Holden, Smithson. Misc. Coll., No. 1087, 1898; Records of recent earthquake movements in Great Britain since 1890 are published by Davison in Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Geol. Mag., and Nature; Records of earlier earthquakes are found in the reports of the Brit. Assoc. (Mallet), in the Edinburgh New Philos. Jour., Vols. XXXI-XXXVI (Milne), and in Trans. of the Roy. Irish Acad., 1884 and 1886 (O’Reilly); The Earthquakes of Scandinavia have been recorded in volumes of the Geol. Fören, Förhandl.; Records of other continental European earthquakes are found in Gerland’s Beiträge zur Geophysik, 1895, 1900, and 1901; Neues Jahrb., 1865–71; Zeitschr. Naturwissen. (1884), (Credner); Bericht. k. Sachs. Geol. Wissen., 1889 and 1900 (Credner); Jahrb. Geol. Reichsanst., 1895 and 1897; Tschermak’s Min. Mitth., 1873, and later; Transactions of the Seismological Soc. of Japan. An index to these Transactions is given at the end of Milne’s Seismology.

Antlitz der Erde. Vol. 1, p. 136.

Eugene A. Smith. Underthrust Folds and Faults, Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XLV, 1893, pp. 305–6.

Manual of Geology, 3d ed., p. 23.

For discussions of folds, see Van Hise, Sixteenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, pp. 603–632; and Willis, Thirteenth Ann. Rept., Pt. II, pp. 217–296.

Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung, p. 213.

Am. Nat., Vol. XIX, p. 257, 1885.

Geol. Surv. of Canada, p. 33 D, 1886.

Elements of Geology, 5th ed., p. 266.

Van Hise. Bull. Geol. Soc. of Am., 1897, Vol. IX, p. 291.

See Woodward’s address, Mathematical Theories of the Earth, Proc. Am. Assc. for Adv. Sci., 1889, pp. 59–63.

Nat. Phil. Thompson and Tait, Pt. II, p. 477. See also Popular Lectures and Addresses, 1894, II, p. 313.

Physics of the Earth’s Crust, Fisher, p. 95.

Origin of Mountain Ranges, T. Mellard Reade, p. 125.

Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Vol. 178, pp. 231–49.

Amer. Jour. Sci., 1893, 3d series, Vol. 45, p. 7.

Essentially the same as atmospheres.

The pressures and densities here given are essentially the same as those previously worked out by others and already published. The temperatures are the results of recent preliminary computations made under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution, and are subject to change on further study. They are based on the assumption that the increase in density is due to compression. They are in general accord with the results previously reached by Dr. F. R. Moulton (see “A Group of Hypotheses Bearing on Climatic Changes,” by T. C. Chamberlin, Jour. of Geol., 1897, p. 674). The Rev. O. Fisher, in the Am. Jour. of Sci., 1901, p. 420, gives much higher results.

Attention was called to this feature by Chamberlin in a paper before the Geol. Soc. of Am. at Rochester, December, 1901.

These are reckoned by assuming that the temperature of no variation at 50 feet below the surface is 40° F.

Am. Jour. of Sci., Vol. V, 1898, p. 161.

Van Hise. Personal communication.

Bull. 168 U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 14.

Daniell’s Physics, p. 407.

Heat. Tait, p. 225.

All the feldspars are calculated as anorthite. Augite is used for hypersthene, ilmenite is included with magnetite, and all minerals are calculated as if of the isometric system.

Physics of the Earth’s Crust, Chap. VIII.

Penn Monthly, Philadelphia, May, 1876.

The following conclusion by an eminent authority has come to our notice since this was written:

L’influence des marées océanienes sur la durée du jour est donc tout à fait minime et n’est nullement comparable à l’effet des marées dues à la viscosité et à l’elasticité de la partie solide du globe, effet sur lequel M. Darwin à insisté dans une series de Mémoires du plus haut intérêt. Par H. Poincaré, Bulletin Astronomique, tome XX (June, 1903), p. 223.

On the Secular Changes in the Elements of the Orbit of a Satellite revolving about a Tidally-distorted Planet. Phil. Trans., Roy. Soc., Pt. II, 1880.

Jour. Geol., Vol. VI, 1898, p. 65.

Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. 39, 1883, p. 140. Everett (Units and Physical Constants) gives 837 × 10⁶ for steel, but as the modulus for granite seems low, we have taken the lower estimate for steel to avoid exaggerating the ratio between them.

Nat. Phil. Thompson & Tait, Vol. II, p. 424, 1890.

Computations made at the request of the authors. See also Fisher, Physics of the Earth’s Crust, p. 36.

Of like import is the statement of Woodward—“If the crust of the earth were self-supporting, its crushing strength would have to be about thirty times that of the best cast steel, or five hundred to one thousand times that of granite.” Mathematical Theories of the Earth, Proc. Am. Assoc. for Adv. Sci., 1889, p. 49.

It is assumed that the direction of the supporting thrust at the periphery of the dome is at every point parallel to the tangent to the domed surface. This is justified by symmetry in the case of a shell conforming to the sphericity of the earth, and in the other cases it would seem to be as favorable an assumption in the direction of high supporting capacity as can reasonably be made.

Prepared at the authors’ request by W. H. Emmons.

The terms are here used in their narrow technical sense. Extrusion is also used in a broad generic sense to indicate the whole process of outward movement.

Gilbert. 14th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., Pt. I, p. 187.

Gilbert, after a careful study of the moon’s topography, has suggested that the lunar pits may be indentations produced by infalling meteorites or planetoids, and has shown by experiment that pits of a similar type, with similar central cones, can be produced by impact. The Moon’s Face: A Study of the Origin of its Features. Presidential address, Phil. Soc. of Washington, 1892, Bull. Vol. XII, pp. 241–292.

Structure and Distribution of Coral Islands.

Corals and Coral Islands.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. X, pp. 505–18, and Vol. XVII, pp. 79–109; Nature, Vol. XXXII, p. 613; Narrative Chal. Exp., Vol. I, pp. 781–2.

Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XVII, 1889.

Ante, p. 22.

Origin of Igneous Rocks. Phil. Soc. of Wash., Vol. XII, pp. 89–214.

The Natural System of Volcanic Rocks. Cal. Acad. of Sci., 1868.

Chemical News, April 9, 1897.

Phil. Trans., 1873.

Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion, Am. Jour. Sci., Apr., p. 269, and Aug., p. 107, 1903.

Frank. Lehrbuch der Botanik, I, p. 576, 1892.

Science, Vol. VI, p. 838, 1897. Zeitschrift für Anorganische Chemie, 1897.

Reference works: Scott, Studies in Fossil Plants, 1900; Zeiller, Éléments de Paléobotanique, 1900; Potonié, Lehrbuch der Pflanzenpaleontologie, 1899; Seward, Fossil Plants, 1898; Solms-Laubach, Fossil Botany, 1887.

Weed. Ninth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1887–88, pp. 613–76; also Bradley M. Davis. Science, Vol. VI, 1897, pp. 145–57.

Cohn. Abhandl. Schles. Gesell. Naturwiss., Heft II, 1862.

Deep Sea Deposits, p. 257.

C. A. Davis. Jour. of Geol., Vol. IX, 1901, p. 491.

Weed. Ninth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1887–8.

Reference books: Zittel’s Text-book on Paleontology, translated and edited by Eastman; Williams’ Geological Biology; Nicholson’s Manual of Paleontology.

After Zittel in the main.

S. W. Johnson, How Crops Feed, p. 47.

Reference works: Plant Relations, Coulter, 1900,—a convenient elementary work; Schimper, Pflanzengeographie, 1898; Warming, Lehrbuch der oekologischen Pflanzengeographie, 1896; Cowles, Botanical Gazette, Vol. XXVII, 1898.

One of the earliest attempts to map these and develop their significance and value is found in Vol. II, Geol. of Wis., 1873–77, Native Vegetation, pp. 176–87.

Chamberlin. A Systematic Source of Evolution of Provincial Faunas, Jour. of Geol., Vol. VI, 1898, pp. 597–609.

Wallace. Island Life.

For data, see Walther’s Einleitung in die Geologie, pp. 35–45.

Transcriber’s Notes:

- Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (italics). - Text enclosed by equals is in antiqua font (=antiqua=). - Text enclosed by pluses is in small caps (+Small Caps+). - Blank pages have been removed. - Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected.