SECTION D.

Beginning of English Conquest--Vortigern--Jutes in Thanet--Battle of Stamford--Massacre of Britons--Valentinian III.--Latest Roman coin found in Britain--Progress of Conquest--The Cymry--Survival of Romano-British titles--Arturian Romances--Procopius--Belisarius--Roman claims revived by Charlemagne--The British Empire.

D. 1.--Little remains to be told, and that little rests upon no contemporary authority known to us. In Gildas, the nearest, writing in the next century, we find little more than a monotonous threnody over the awful visitation of the English Conquest, the wholesale and utter destruction of cities, the desecration of churches, the massacre of clergy and people. Nennius (as, for the sake of convenience, modern writers mostly agree to call the unknown author of the 'Historia Britonum') gives us legends of British incompetence and Saxon treachery which doubtless represent the substantial features of the break-up, and preserve, quite possibly, even some of the details. Bede and the 'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' assign actual dates to the various events, but we have no means of testing their accuracy.

D. 2.--Broadly we know that the unhappy civilians, who were not only without military experience, but had up to this moment been actually forbidden to carry arms, naturally proved unable to face the ferocious enemies who swarmed in upon them. They could neither hold the Wall against the Picts nor the coast against the Saxons. It may well be true that they chose a Dux Britannorum, and that his name may have been something like Vortigern, and that he (when a final appeal for Roman aid proved vain) may have taken into his pay (as Carausius did) the crews of certain pirate "keels" [chiulae], and settled them in Thanet. The very names of their English captains, "Hengist and Horsa," may not be so mythical as critics commonly assume. And the tale of the victory at Stamford, when the spears of the Scottish invaders were cut to pieces by the swords of the English mercenaries, has a very true ring about it. So has also the sequel, which tells how, when the inevitable quarrel arose between employers and employed, the Saxon leader gave the signal for the fray by suddenly shouting to his men, Nimed eure saxes (i.e. "Draw your knives!"), and massacred the hapless Britons of Kent almost without resistance.

D. 3.--The date of this first English settlement is doubtful. Bede fixes it as 449, which agrees with the order of events in Gildas, and with the notice in Nennius that it was forty years after the end of Roman rule in Britain [transacto Romanorum in Britannia imperio]. But Nennius also declares that this was in the fourth year of Vortigern, and that his accession coincided with that of the nephew and successor of Honorius, Valentinian III., son of Galla Placidia, which would bring in the Saxons 428. It may perhaps be some very slight confirmation of the later date, that Valentinian is the last Emperor whose coins have been found in Britain.

D. 4.--Anyhow, the arrival of the successive swarms of Anglo-Saxons from the mouth of the Elbe, and their hard-won conquest of Eastern Britain during the 5th century, is certain. The western half of the island, from Clydesdale southwards, resisted much longer, and, in spite of its long and straggling frontier, held together for more than a century. Not till the decisive victory of the Northumbrians at Chester (A.D. 607), and that of the West Saxons at Beandune (A.D. 614) was this Cymrian federation finally broken into three fragments, each destined shortly to disintegrate into an ever-shifting medley of petty principalities. Yet in each the ideal of national and racial unity embodied in the word Cymry long survived; and titles borne to this day by our Royal House, "Duke of Cornwall," "Prince of Wales," "Duke of Albany," are the far-off echoes, lingering in each, of the Roman "Comes Britanniae" and "Dux Britanniarum." The three feathers of the Principality may in like manner be traced to the tufa, or plume, borne before the supreme authority amongst the Romans of old, as the like are borne before the Supreme Head of the Roman Church to this day. And age after age the Cymric harpers sang of the days when British armies had marched in triumph to Rome, and the Empire had been won by British princes, till the exploits of their mystical "Arthur" became the nucleus of a whole cycle of mediaeval romance, and even, for a while, a real force in practical politics.

D. 5.--And as the Britons never quite forgot their claims on the Empire, so the Empire never quite forgot its claims on Britain. How entirely the island was cut off from Rome we can best appreciate by the references to it in Procopius. This learned author, writing under Justinian, scarcely 150 years since the day when the land was fully Roman, conceives of Britannia and Brittia as two widely distant islands--the one off the coast of Spain, the other off the mouth of the Rhine. The latter is shared between the Angili, Phrissones, and Britons, and is divided from North to South by a mighty Wall, beyond which no mortal man can breathe. Hither are ferried over from Gaul by night the souls of the departed; the fishermen, whom a mysterious voice summons to the work, seeing no one, but perceiving their barks to be heavily sunk in the water, yet accomplishing the voyage with supernatural celerity.

D. 6.--About the same date Belisarius offered to the Goths, in exchange for their claim to Sicily, which his victories had already rendered practically nugatory, the Roman claims to Britain, "a much larger island," which were equally outside the scope of practical politics for the moment, but might at any favourable opportunity be once more brought forward. And, when the Western Empire was revived under Charlemagne, they were in fact brought forward, and actually submitted to by half the island. The Celtic princes of Scotland, the Anglians of Northumbria, and the Jutes of Kent alike owned the new Caesar as their Suzerain. And the claim was only abrogated by the triumph of the counter-claim first made by Egbert, emphasized by Edward the Elder, and repeated again and again by our monarchs their descendants, that the British Crown owes no allegiance to any potentate on earth, being itself not only Royal, but in the fullest sense Imperial.

SECTION E.

Survivals of Romano-British civilization--Romano-British Church--Legends of its origin--St. Paul--St. Peter--Joseph of Arimathaea--Glastonbury--Historical notices--Claudia and Pudens--Pomponia--Church of St. Pudentiana--Patristic references to Britain--Tertullian--Origen--Legend of Lucius--Native Christianity--British Bishops at Councils--Testimony of Chrysostom and Jerome.

E. 1.--Few questions have been more keenly debated than the extent to which Roman civilization in Britain survived the English Conquest. On the one hand we have such high authorities as Professor Freeman assuring us that our forefathers swept it away as ruthlessly and as thoroughly as the Saracens in Africa; on the other, those who consider that little more disturbance was wrought than by the Danish invasions. The truth probably lies between the two, but much nearer to the former than the latter. The substitution of an English for the Roman name of almost every Roman site in the country could scarcely have taken place had there been anything like continuity in their inhabitants. Even the Roman roads, as we have seen, received English designations. We may well believe that most Romano-British towns shared the fate of Anderida (the one recorded instance of destruction), and that the word "chester" was only applied to the Roman ruins by their destroyers. But such places as London, York, and Lincoln may well have lived on through the first generation of mere savage onslaught, after which the English gradually began to tolerate even for themselves a town life.

E. 2.--And though in the country districts the agricultural population were swept away pitilessly to make room for the invaders, till the fens of Ely and the caves of Ribblesdale became the only refuge of the vanquished, yet, undoubtedly, many must have been retained as slaves, especially amongst the women, to leaven the language of the conquerors with many a Latin word, and their ferocity with many a recollection of the gentler Roman past.

E. 3.--And there was one link with that past which not all the massacres and fire-raisings of the Conquest availed to break. The Romano-British populations might be slaughtered, the Romano-British towns destroyed, but the Romano-British Church lived on; the most precious and most abiding legacy bestowed by Rome upon our island.

E. 4.--The origin of that Church has been assigned by tradition to directly Apostolic sources. The often-quoted passage from Theodoret, of St. Paul having "brought help" to "the isles of the sea" [[Greek: tais en to pelagei diakeimenais nêsois]], can scarcely, however, refer to this island. No classical author ever uses the word [Greek: pelagos] of the Oceanic waters; and the epithet [Greek: diakeimenais], coming, as it does, in connection with the Apostle's preaching in Italy and Spain, seems rather to point to the islands between these peninsulas--Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Islands. But the well-known words of St. Clement of Rome, that St. Paul's missionary journeys extended to "the End of the West" [Greek: to terma tês duseôs], were, as early as the 6th century, held to imply a visit to Britain (for our island was popularly supposed by the ancients to lie west of Spain). The lines of Venantius (A.D. 580) even seem to contain a reference to the tradition that he landed at Portsmouth:

"Transit et Oceanum, vel qua facit insula portum, Quasque Britannus habet terras atque ultima Thule."

E. 5.--The Menology of the Greek Church (6th century) ascribes the organization of the British Church to the visitation, not of St. Paul, but of St. Peter in person.

The 'Acta Sanctorum' also mentions this tradition (filtered through Simeon Metaphrastes), and adds that St. Peter was in Britain during Boadicea's rebellion, when he incurred great danger.

E. 6--The 'Synopsis Apostolorum,' ascribed to Dorotheus (A.D. 180), but really a 6th-century compilation, gives us yet another Apostolic preacher, St. Simon Zelotes. This is probably due to a mere confusion between [Greek: Mabritania] [Mauretania] and [Greek: Bretannia]. But it is impossible to deny that the Princes of the Apostles may both have visited Britain, nor indeed is there anything essentially improbable in their doing so. We know that Britain was an object of special interest at Rome during the period of the Conquest, and it would be quite likely that the idea of simultaneously conquering this new Roman dominion for Christ should suggest itself to the two Apostles so specially connected with the Roman Church.

E. 7.--But while we may possibly accept this legend, it is otherwise with the famous and beautiful story which ascribes the foundation of our earliest church at Glastonbury to the pilgrimage of St. Joseph of Arimathaea, whose staff, while he rested on Weary-all Hill, took root, and became the famous winter thorn, which

"Blossoms at Christmas, mindful of our Lord,"

and who, accordingly, set up, hard by, a little church of wattle to be the centre of local Christianity.

E. 8.--Such was the tale which accounted for the fact that this humble edifice developed into the stateliest sanctuary of all Britain. We first find it, in its final shape, in Geoffrey of Monmouth (1150); but already in the 10th century the special sanctity of the shrine was ascribed to a supernatural origin, as a contemporary Life of St. Dunstan assures us; and it is declared, in an undisputed Charter of Edgar, to be "the first church in the Kingdom built by the disciples of Christ." But no earlier reference is known; for the passages cited from Gildas and Melkinus are quite untrustworthy. So striking a phenomenon as the winter thorn would be certain to become an object of heathen devotion; and, as usual, the early preachers would Christianize the local cult, as they Christianized the Druidical figment of a Holy Cup (perhaps also local in its origin), into the sublime mysticism of the Sangreal legend, connected likewise with Joseph of Arimathaea.

E. 9.--That the original church of Glaston was really of wattle is more than probable, for the remains of British buildings thus constructed have been found abundantly in the neighbouring peat. The Arimathaean theory of its consecration became so generally accepted that at the Council of Constance (1419) precedence was actually accorded to our Bishops as representing the senior Church of Christendom. But the oldest variant of the legend says nothing about Arimathaea, but speaks only of an undetermined "Joseph" as the leader [decurio] of twelve missionary comrades who with him settled down at Glastonbury. And this may well be true. Such bands (as we see in the Life of Columba) were the regular system in Celtic mission work, and survived in that of the Preaching Friars:

"For thirteen is a Covent, as I guess."

E. 10.--And though such high authorities as Mr. Haddan have come to the conclusion that Christianity in Britain was confined to a small minority even amongst the Roman inhabitants of the island, and almost vanished with them, yet the catena of references to British converts can scarcely be thus set aside. They begin in Apostolic times and in special connection with St. Paul. Martial tells us of a British princess named Claudia Rufina (very probably the daughter of that Claudius Cogidubnus whom we meet in Tacitus as at once a British King and an Imperial Legate), whose beauty and wit made no little sensation in Rome; whither she had doubtless been sent at once for education and as a hostage for her father's fidelity. And one of the most beautiful of his Epigrams speaks of the marriage of this foreigner to a Roman of high family named Pudens, belonging to the Gens Aemilia (of which the Pauline family formed a part):

"Claudia, Rufe, meo nubet peregrina Pudenti, Macte esto taedis, O Hymenaee, suis. Diligat illa senem quondam; sed et ipsa marito, Tunc quoque cum fuerit, non videatur anus."

It may have been in consequence of this marriage that Pudens joined with Claudius Cogidubnus in setting up the Imperial Temple at Chichester. And the fact that Claudia was an adopted member of the Rufine family shows that she was connected with the Gens Pomponia to which this family belonged.

E. 11.--Now Aulus Plautius, the conqueror of Britain, had married a Pomponia, who in A.D. 57 was accused of practising an illicit religion, and, though pronounced guiltless by her husband (to whose domestic tribunal she was left, as Roman Law permitted), passed the rest of her life in retirement. When we read of an illicit religion in connection with Britain, our first thought is, naturally, that Druidism is intended. But there are strong reasons for supposing that Pomponia was actually a Christian. The names of her family are found in one of the earliest Christian catacombs in Rome, that of Calixtus; and that Christianity had its converts in very high quarters we know from the case of Clemens and Domitilla, closely related to the Imperial throne.

E. 12.--Turning next to St. Paul's Second Epistle to Timothy, we find, in close connection, the names of Pudens and Claudia (along with that of the future Pope Linus) amongst the salutations from Roman Christians. And recent excavations have established the fact that the house of Pudens was used for Christian worship at this date, and is now represented by the church known as St. Pudentiana. That this should have been so proves that this Pudens was no slave going under his master's name (as was sometimes done), but a man of good position in Rome. Short of actual proof it would be hard to imagine a series of evidences more morally convincing that the Pudens and Claudia of Martial are the Pudens and Claudia of St. Paul, and that they, as well as Pomponia, were Christians. Whether, then, St. Paul did or did not actually visit Britain, the earliest British Christianity is, at least, closely connected with his name.

E. 13.--Neither legendary nor historical sources tell us of any further development of British Christianity till the latter days of the 2nd century. Then, however, it had become sufficiently widespread to furnish a common-place for ecclesiastical declamation on the all-conquering influence of the Gospel. Both Tertullian and Origen thus use it. The former numbers in his catalogue of believing countries even the districts of Britain beyond the Roman pale, Britannorum inaccessa Romanis loca, Christo vero subdita. And in this lies the interest of his reference, as pointing to the native rather than the Roman element being the predominant factor in the British Church. For just at this period comes in the legend preserved by Bede, that a mission was sent to Britain by Pope Eleutherius in response to an appeal from "Lucius Britanniae Rex." The story, which Bede probably got from the 'Catalogus Pontificum,' may be apocryphal; but it would never have been invented had British Christianity been found merely or mainly in the Roman veneer of the population. Modern criticism finds in it this kernel of truth, that the persecution which gave the Gallican Church the martyrs of Lyons, also sent her scattered refugees as missionaries into the less dangerous regions of Britain;--those remoter parts, in especial, where even the long arm of the Imperial Government could not reach them.

E. 14.--The Picts, however, as a nation, remained savage heathens even to the 7th century, and the bulk of our Christian population must have been within the Roman pale; but little vexed, it would seem, by persecution, till it came into conflict with the thorough-going Imperialism of Diocletian. Its martyrs were then numbered, according to Gildas, by thousands, according to Bede by hundreds; and their chief, St. Alban, at least, is a fairly established historical entity. Nor is there any reason to doubt that after Constantine South Britain was as fully Christian as any country in Europe. In the earliest days of his reign (A.D. 314) we find three bishops, together with a priest and a deacon, representing the British Church at the Council of Arles (which, amongst other things, condemned the marriage of the "innocent divorcee"). And the same number figure in the Council of Ariminum (360), as the only prelates (out of the 400) who deigned to accept from the Emperor the expenses of their journey and attendance.

E. 15.--This Council was called by Constantius II. in the semi-Arian interest, and not allowed to break up till after repudiating the Nicene formula. But the lapse was only for a moment. Before the decade was out Athanasius could write of Britain as notoriously orthodox, and before the century closes we have frequent references to our island as a fully Christian and Catholic land. Chrysostom speaks of its churches and its altars and "the power of the Word" in its pulpits, of its diligent study of Scripture and Catholic doctrine, of its acceptance of Catholic discipline, of its use of Catholic formulae: "Whithersoever thou goest," he says, "throughout the whole world, be it to India, to Africa, or to Britain, thou wilt find In the beginning was the Word." Jerome, in turn, tells of British pilgrimages to Jerusalem and to Rome; and, in his famous passage on the world-wide Communion of the Roman See, mentions Britain by name: "Nec altera Romanae Urbis Ecclesia, altera totius orbis existimanda est. Et Galliae, et Britanniae, et Africa, et Persis, et Oriens, et Indio, et omnes barbarae nationes, unum Christum adorant, unam observant regulam veritatis."

SECTION F.

British Missionaries--Ninias--Patrick--Beatus--Heresiarchs--Pelagius Fastidius--Pelagianism stamped out by Germanus--The Alleluia Battle--Romano-British churches--Why so seldom found--Conclusion.

F. 1.--The fruits of all this vigorous Christian life soon showed themselves in the Church of Britain by the evolution of noteworthy individual Christians. First in order comes Ninias, the Apostle of the Southern Picts, commissioned to the work, after years of training at Rome, by Pope Siricius (A.D. 394), and fired by the example of St. Martin, the great prelate of Gaul. To this saint (or, to speak more exactly, under his invocation) Ninias, on hearing of his death in A.D. 400, dedicated his newly-built church at Whithern in Galloway, the earliest recorded example of this kind of dedication in Britain. Galloway may have been the native home of Ninias, and was certainly the head-quarters of his ministry.

F. 2.--The work of Ninias amongst the Picts was followed in the next generation by the more abiding work of St. Patrick amongst the Scots of Ireland. Nay, even the Continent was indebted to British piety; though few British visitors to the Swiss Oberland remember that the Christianity they see around them is due to the zeal of a British Mission. Yet there seems no solid reason for doubting that so it is. Somewhere about the time of St. Patrick, two British priests, Beatus and Justus, entered the district by the Brunig Pass, and set up their first church at Einigen, near Thun. There Justus abode as the settled Missioner of the neighbourhood, while Beatus made his home in the ivy-clad cave above the lake which still bears his name, sailing up and down with the Gospel message, and evangelizing the valleys and uplands now so familiar to his fellow-countrymen--Grindelwald, Lauterbrunnen, Mürren, Kandersteg.

F. 3.--And while the light of the Gospel was thus spreading on every side from our land, Britain was also becoming all too famous as the nurse of error. The British Pelagius, who erred concerning the doctrine of free-will, grew to be a heresiarch of the first order; and his follower Fastidius, or Faustus, the saintly Abbot of Lerins in the Hyères, the friend of Sidonius Apollinaris, was, in his day, only less renowned. He asserted the materiality of the soul. Both were able writers; and Pelagius was the first to adopt the plan of promulgating his heresies not as his own, but as the tenets of supposititious individuals of his acquaintance.

F. 4.--Pelagianism spread so widely in Britain that the Catholics implored for aid from over-sea. St. Germanus of Auxerre, and St. Lupus, Bishop of Troyes (whose sanctity had disarmed the ferocity even of Attila), came accordingly (in 429) and vindicated the faith in a synod held at Verulam so successfully that the neighbouring shrine of St. Alban was the scene of a special service of thanksgiving. In a second Mission, fifteen years later, Germanus set the seal to his work, stamping out throughout all the land both this new heresy and such remains of heathenism as were still to be found in Southern Britain. While thus engaged on the Border he found his work endangered by a raiding host of Picts or Saxons, or both. The Saint, who had been a military chieftain in his youth, promptly took the field at the head of his flock, many of whom were but newly baptized. It was Easter Eve, and he took advantage of the sacred ceremonies of that holy season, which were then actually performed by night. From the New Fire, the "Lumen Christi," was kindled a line of beacons along the Christian lines, and when Germanus intoned the threefold Easter Alleluia, the familiar strain was echoed from lip to lip throughout the host. Stricken with panic at the sudden outburst of light and song, the enemy, without a blow, broke and fled.

F. 5.--This story, as told by Constantius, and confirmed by both Nennius and Bede, incidentally furnishes us with something of a key to the main difficulty in accepting the widely-spread Romano-British Christianity to which the foregoing citations testify. What, it is asked, has become of all the Romano-British churches? Why are no traces of them found amongst the abundant Roman remains all over the land? That they were the special objects of destruction at the Saxon invasion we learn from Gildas. But this does not account for their very foundations having disappeared; yet at Silchester alone have modern excavations unearthed any even approximately certain example of them. Where are all the rest?

F. 6.--The question is partly answered when we read that the soldiers of Germanus had erected in their camp a church of wattle, and that such was the usual material of which, even as late as 446, British churches were built (as at Glastonbury). Seldom indeed would such leave any trace behind them; and thus the country churches of Roman Britain would be sought in vain by excavators. In the towns, however, stone or brick would assuredly be used, and to account for the paucity of ecclesiastical ruins three answers may be suggested.

F. 7.--First, the number of continuously unoccupied Romano-British cities is very small indeed. Except at Silchester, Anderida, and Uriconium, almost every one has become an English town. But when this took place early in the English settlement of the land, the ruins of the Romano-British churches would still be clearly traceable at the conversion of the English, and would be rebuilt (as St. Martin's at Canterbury was in all probability rebuilt) for the use of English Christianity, the old material being worked up into the new edifices. It is probable that many of our churches thus stand on the very spot where the Romano-British churches stood of old. But this very fact would obliterate the remains of these churches.

F. 8.--Secondly, it is very possible that many of the heathen temples may, after the edict of Theodosius (A.D. 392), have been turned into churches (like the Pantheon at Rome), so that their remains may mark ecclesiastical sites. There are reasons for believing that in various places, such as St. Paul's, London, St. Peter's, Cambridge, and St. Mary's, Ribchester, Christian worship did actually thus succeed Pagan on the same site.

F. 9.--Thirdly, as Lanciani points out, the earliest Christian churches were simply the ordinary dwelling-houses of such wealthier converts as were willing to permit meetings for worship beneath their roof, which in time became formally consecrated to that purpose. Such a dwelling-house usually consisted of an oblong central hall, with a pillared colonnade, opening into a roofed cloister or peristyle on either side, at one end into a smaller guest-room [tablinum], at the other into the porch of entry. The whole was arranged thus:

Small Guest Room. P P e e r r i Central Hall, i s with pillars s t on each side t y (often roofless). y l l e e Porch of Entry.

It will be readily seen that we have here a building on the lines of an ordinary church. The small original congregation would meet, like other guests, in the reception-room. As numbers increased, the hall and adjoining cloisters would have to be used (the former being roofed in); the reception-room being reserved for the most honoured members, and ultimately becoming the chancel of a fully-developed church, with nave and aisles complete. It may be, therefore, that some of the Roman villas found in Britain were really churches.

F. 10.--This, however, is a less probable explanation of the absence of ecclesiastical remains; and the large majority of Romano-British church sites are, as I believe, still in actual use amongst us for their original purpose. And it may be considered as fairly proved, that before Britain was cut off from the Empire the Romano-British Church had a rite and a vigorous corporate life of its own, which the wave of heathen invasion could not wholly submerge. It lived on, shattered, perhaps, and disorganized, but not utterly crushed, to be strengthened in due time by a closer union with its parent stem, through the Mission of Augustine, to feel the reflex glow of its own missionary efforts in the fervour of Columba and his followers, and, finally, to form an integral part of that Ecclesia Anglicana whose influence knit our country into one, and inspired the Great Charter of our constitutional liberties. Her faith and her freedom are the abiding debt which Britain owes to her connection with Rome.

INDEX

Aaron of Caerleon, 259 Addeomarus, 130 Adder-beads, 71 Adelfius, 259 Adminius, 126, 128, 130 Aetius, 245 Agricola, 156, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165 Agriculture, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 191, 231 Agrippina, 140, 149, 150 Akeman Street, 166 Alaric, 237, 243 Alban, St., 227, 259 Albany, 247 Albinus, 200 Albion, 32 Alexander Severus, 71 Allectus, 220, 223, 224, 231 Alleluia Battle, 264 Alpine dogs, 191 Amber, 48, 49 Ambleteuse, 86, 95 Amboglanna, 174, 204 Aminus. See Adminius Amphitheatres, 185, 224 Ancalites, 55, 120 Ancyran Tablet, 128 Anderida, 56, 240, 250, 265 Anglesey, 154, 161 Antedrigus, 131, 146 Antonines, 213 Antoninus Pius, 171, 197, 214 Aquae Sulis, 183. See Bath Aquila, 257 Arianism, 230 Arms, 49, 178 Army of Britain, 159, 160, 199, 200, 218, 228, 230, 235, 242 Army of Church, 268 Arthur, 247 Arthur's Well, 205 Asclepiodotus, 224 Ash-pits, 177, 186 Asturians, 204, 205 Atrebates, 55, 56, 82, 87, 125, 127, 142 Attacotti, 46, 194, 233 Augusta, 180, 233 Augustine, 243 Augustus, 128, 129 Avebury, 30

Bards, 66 Barham Down, 110, 114 Barns, British, 40 Barrows, 29, 60 Basilicas, 185 Baskets, 43 Basques, 51 Bath, 60, 170, 174, 183 Battle Bridge, 157 Beads, 48, 128 Beatus, St., 262 Bee-keeping, 42 Beer, 42 Belgae, 52, 57, 61 Belisarius, 249 Bericus. See Vericus Bibroci, 55, 56, 120 Birdoswald, 174, 203, 204 Bishops, British, 230, 255, 259 Boadicea, 152, 157, 158, 253 Borcovicus, 205 Boulogne, 86, 220, 223, 233 Breeches, 47 Brigantes, 49, 57, 146, 148, 160, 197, 206 Brige, 175 Britain, "Upper" and "Lower," 195 Britannia coins, 197 Britannia I. and II., 59, 225 Britannicus, 136, 140, 199 British coins, 38, 125, 126, 127 " Lion, 126, 210 221 Britons, Origin of, 32 Brittany, 235 Bronze, 30, 33 Brownies, 29 Brutus, 151

Cadiz, 34 Cadwallon. See Cassivellaunus Caer Caradoc, 148 Caergwent, 184 Caerleon, 150, 166, 179, 182, 195, 239, 259 Caer Segent, 56 Caesar, Julius: Earlier career, 73-83 First invasion, 83-101 Second invasion, 102-123 Caesar (as title), 222 Caesar's horse, 107 Caledonians, 163, 194, 201, 202, 213, 232 Caligula, 126, 130 Calleva, 56, 172, etc. See Silchester Cambridge, 171, 175, 178, 266 Camelodune, 127, 135, 147, 152, 154, 176 Cangi, 146 Cannibalism, 46, 233 Canterbury, 265 Caracalla, 171, 201, 212-214 Caractacus (Caradoc, Caratac), 127, 134, 137, 147, 148, 149 Carausius, 180, 220, 221, 245 Carlisle, 175, 204 Cartismandua, 148, 150, 160 Cassi, 54, 55, 120 Cassiterides, 34 Cassivellaunus (Caswallon), 109, 113-122, 127 Cateuchlani (Cattivellauni), 55, 58, 59, 109, 121, 127 Cattle, British, 45 Celestine, Pope, 263 Celtic types, 50 Cerealis, 160 Cerne Abbas, 65 Chariots, British, 50, 92, 99, 115, 129, 134, 163 Charnwood, 190 Chedworth, 58, 267 Chester, 162, 167, 174, 179, 182, 195, 247, 250 "Chester" (suffix), 175, 183, 250 Chesters. See Cilurnum Chichester, 141 Chives, 205 Christianity, British, 225-230, 251-268 Churches, British, 185, 264-267 Cicero, 36, 75, 77, 104-106, 122, 151 Cilurnum, 204, 205, 211 Cirencester, 225. See Corinium Citizenship, Roman, 140, 141, 213, 214 Clans, British, 52, 55-59 Claudia Rufina, 141, 256, 257 Claudius, 131, 134-143, 147, 149, 150 Clement, St., 252 Climate, British, 40, 185 Cogidubnus, 141, 256 Cohorts, 86, 114, 239 Coins, British, 38, 54, 125-127 " Romano-British, 139, 177, 197, 221, 246 Colchester (Colonia), 167, 171, 175, 176, 222. See Camelodune Colonies, 147, 152-154, 175 Columba, 71, 72, 268 Comitatenses, 239 Commius, 54, 83, 87, 94, 101, 121, 124-127, 130 Commodus, 199, 200 Constans, 230 Constantine I., 222, 227-229 " III., 242 Constantius I., 180, 222-224, 227-229 Constantius II., 231, 260 Cony Castle, 30 Coracles, 37, 245 Corinium 179, 189-191. See Cirencester Corn-growing, 40, 191, 231 Coronation Oath, 260 Council of Ariminum, 230, 260 " Arles, 230, 259 " Cloveshoo, 267 " Constance, 255 " Nice, 230 Count of Britain, 240, 243, 247 " the Saxon Shore, 220, 240, 243 Counts of the Empire, 240 Coway Stakes, 119 Cromlechs, 29 Cymbeline (Cunobelin), 54, 126-128 Cymry, 247

Damnonii, 57, 58, 61, 80, 247 Deal, 89, 108 Decangi, 146 Decentius, 231 Decurions, 182 Dedication of churches, 261 Dene Holes, 41 "Dioceses," 222 Diocletian, 59, 71, 219, 221, 222, 224-227 Divitiacus, 82, 109 Divorce, 259 "Divus," 123, 227 Dobuni, 57, 132 Dogs, British, 190 Dol, 235 Dolmens, 29 Domestic animals, 45, 46 Domitian, 163 Domitilla, 257 Dorchester, 61 Dover, 87 Dragon standard, 244 "Druidesses," 71, 154, 155 Druidism, 62-72 Duke of the Britains, 239, 243, 247 Duke of the Britons, 245 Duns, 60 Durotriges, 57, 61

Eagles, Legionary, 90, 91, 228 Eboracum, 174 Eborius, 259 Elephants, 107, 119, 134 Eleutherius, 258 Emeriti, 214 English, 232, 245, 246 Epping Forest, 47, 190 Equinoctial hours, 39, 40 Erinus Hispanicus, 204 Ermine Street, 166-170 Exports, British, 128, 129

Fastidius, Faustus, 263 Flavians, 133 Fleam Dyke, 144, 145 Fleet, British, 182, 221 Forests, 47, 56-58, 189 Fosse Way, 166, 167, 169 Frampton, 267 Franks, 219, 224, 237 Frisians, 200, 220, 248 Fruit-trees, 186

Gael, 32, 50 Galerius, 222, 227, 228 Galgacus, 163 Galloway, 46, 194, 233, 248, 261 Gates of London, 179 Geese, 46 Gelt, R., 210 Genuini, 197 Germanus, 263-265 Gerontius (Geraint), 242 Geta, 201, 213 Gladiators, 136, 137, 224 Glass, 48, 129 Glastonbury, 27, 57, 254, 255 Glazed ware, 188 Gnossus, 37 Gog-Magog Hills, 219 Gold, 30, 39, 48 Goths, 249 Grindelwald, 262 Gulf Stream, 40

Hadrian, 181, 194-197 Hair-dye, 48, 129 Handicrafts, 187, 188 Hardway, 36 Hasta Pura, 138 Havre, 223 Helena, 222, 227 "Hengist and Horsa," 245 Heretics, 263 Honorius, 242, 243 Horseshoes, 177 Hounds, 190 Hugh, St., 185 Huntingdon, 171 Hypocausts, 189, 205

Iberians, 51 Iceni, 54, 57, 58, 59, 120, 130, 142-146, 152, 157, 170 Icknield Street, 144, 145, 167, 170, 186 Ictis, 35 Ierne, 32, 234, 236. See Ireland Immanuentius, 109 Imperial visits, 134, 194, 201, 223, 230 Ireland, 162, 232, 262, 268. See Ierne Iron, 33, 50 Itinerary, 171, 172, 173, 175

Jadite, 29 Jerome, St., 46, 191, 233, 260 Jerusalem, 160, 181, 260 Joseph of Arimathaea, 254 Julia Domna, 209, 210, 213 " Lex, 192, 243 Julian, 191, 225, 231, 232 Julianus, 200 Julius Caesar. See Caesar " Classicianus, 158 " Firmicus, 230 " of Caerleon, 259 Juridicus Britanniae, 181 Justinian, 181, 248 Justus, 262

Kalendar of Druids, 64 "Keels," Saxon, 221, 245 Kent, 55, 121, 127, 142, 247-249 Kilns, 187 King's Cross, 157 Koridwen, 155

Labarum, 188, 228, 229, 267 Labienus, 107, 122, 123 Lambeth, 168 Lead-mining, 39, 146, 188 Legates, 141, 197, 200, 232 Legion II., 133, 150, 157, 174, 182, 239 " VI., 174, 182, 239 " VII., 99 " IX., 133, 154, 157, 178, 181, 194 " X., 91, 99 " XIV., 133, 150, 156, 160 " XX., 133, 150, 157, 160, 174, 182, 234, 237, 240 Legionary feeling, 91, 157 Legions, Roman, 86, 90, 91, 231, 238, 239 Leicester, 183 Libelli, 226 Liber Landavensis, 259 Licinius, 228 Ligurians, 51 Lincoln, 171, 175, 185, 250, 259 Linus, 257 Lion, British, 126, 210, 221 Loddon, R., 134 Logris, 51 Lollius Urbicus, 197, 198 London, 60, 117, 118, 122, 154, 156, 157, 166, 168, 169, 171, 179-183, 224, 233, 241, 250, 259 Lupicinus, 232 Lupus, 263 Lyminge, 265 Lyons, 200, 258

Magna, 208 Magnentius, 230, 231 Maiden Castle, 61 " Way, 169 Mandubratius, 109, 122, 127 Mansions, 189 Manures, 40 Marcus Aurelius, 215 Marseilles, 35, 38 Martial, 43, 141, 255-257 Martin, St., 261, 262 Martyrs, British, 227, 259 Mastiffs, 190 Mater Deum, 209, 210 Maxentius, 228 Maximian, 222, 225, 227, 228 Maximin, 228 Maximus, 235 Mead, 42 Meatae, 201, 202, 232 Mendips, 39, 188 Mile Castles, 195, 204 Milestones, 180 Millstones, 44 Missionaries, British, 261, 262 Mistletoe, 67, 68 Mithraism, 207, 208, 228 Mona, 154, 155, 161 Money-box, 184 Morgan, 263 Mutter-recht, 46

Narcissus, 131 Needwood, 58, 190 Nennius, 171-173, 244-247 Neolithic Age, 28-30 Nero, 151, 158, 159 Nervii, 54 Newcastle, 204 Ninias, 261, 262, 264 North Tyne R., 211 Notitia, 171, 173, 174, 237-242

Oberland, 262 Ocean, 33, 85, 97, 122, 131, 236, 238, 256 Ogre, 29 "Old England's Hole," 111 Optio, 211 Ordovices, 57, 147, 161 Ostorius, 142-149 Otho, 159, 160

Paganism suppressed, 230 Palaeolithic period, 26-28 Pansa, 198 Pantheon, Druidic, 62, 64 Parisii, 54, 58, 82 Parjetting, 187 Patrick, St., 71, 262 Paul, St., 251-257 Pax Romana, 165, 178, 187 Pearls, British, 128 Peel Crag, 203 Pelagius, 263 Perennis, 199 Pertinax, 200 Peter, St., 252, 253 Petronius, 158 Phoenicians, 33-37 Picts, 193, 207, 232-236, 245, 259, 261, 264 Pilgrims, British, 260 Pilgrims' Way, 36 Pillars, multiple, 185 Pilum, 158 Pirates, 219-221, 235, 245 Plautius, 131, 134, 137, 147, 256 Plough, British, 40 Pomponia, 256 Population, 59, 178 Portsmouth Harbour, 132, 240, 252 Port Way, 186 Posidonius, 36, 82 Posting, 189, 227 Postumus, 218 Pottery, 30, 187 Praetorium, 181 Prasutagus, 152 Precedents, British, 182 Prefectures, 221 Prince of Wales, 247 Priscilla, 257 Priscus, 159 Probus, 192, 218 Pro-consuls, 74, 77, 142, 198 Procurator of Britain, 152, 153, 158 Prosper, 263 Provinces, 59, 74, 77, 195, 198, 222, 225, 230, 240 Ptolemy, 171-175 Pudens, 141, 256, 257 Pytheas, 34-36, 38-40, 42, 45, 49, 51, 55

Querns, 44 Quiberon, Battle off, 81 Quintus Cicero, 104, 105, 106

Radagaisus, 237 Rampart of Agricola, 163, 194, 198, 201, 234 Rationalis Britanniarum, 241 Regni, 57, 142 Ribchester, 176, 266 Richborough, 88, 108, 121, 175, 223, 233, 235, 239 Rings, 186 Rite, British, 267 River-bed men, 26, 27 Rogation Days, 267 Roman citizenship, 140, 141, 213, 214 Roman roads, 117, 166-171 Royal roads, 167 Rycknield Street, 166, 170

Saexe, 219, 246 Sallustius Lucullus, 164 Samian pottery, 188 "Sarsen," 30, 31 Sarum, 175 Saturnalia, 132 Saxons, 193, 206, 219, 233, 234, 236, 238, 244, 245 See English Saxon Shore, 219 Scotch dogs, 191 Scots, 232-238, 246, 262 Scythed chariots, 100 Seers, 66 Segontium, 127, 172, 228 Selwood, 38, 190 Seneca, 140, 152 Settle, 251 Severus, 200-203, 209-213, 231 Sherwood, 58, 190 Shields, British, 49, 50 " Roman, 178 Ships, British, 37, 80 " Venetian, 79, 80 " Caesar's, 81, 103 " Scotch, 232 " Saxon, 245 Silchester, 56, 162, 175,179, 183-188, 264, 265 Silurians, 51, 57, 146-150, 161 Silver, 39, 186 Simon Magus, 71 " Zelotes, 253 "Snake's Egg," 70, 71 South Foreland, 89 Spain, 77, 103, 155, 200, 222, 242 Squads, 239 Squared word, 189 Stamford, Battle of, 232, 246 Staters, 38 "Stations," 202, 203 Stilicho, 235-237, 242 Stoke-by-Nayland, 265 Stonehenge, 30, 31 "Streets," 169 Suetonius Paulinus, 154-158, 161 Sul, 183 Sussex, 50, 128, 142 Sylla, 75 Syracuse, 219

Tabulae Missionis, 214 Tartan, 47 Tasciovan, 54, 127, 128, 130, 156 Tattooing, 48 Taxation, 192 Thames, 56, 117-119, 122, 134 Thanet, 36, 108, 245 Theatres, 153, 184 Theodosius the Elder, 233, 234 " " Great, 230, 235, 242, 268 Thimbles, Roman, 177 Tides, 88, 93, 96, 108, 124, 233 Tin, 33-38. 128 Tincommius, 54, 125, 128 Titus, 133, 137 Togodumnus, 134, 147 Tonsure, Druidic, 72 Treasury, 180, 241 Trebatius, 104 Trees, 47 Tribal boundaries, 56-58 Tribune, 114, 138, 209, 239 Trident, 49 Trinobantes, 55, 57, 59, 109, 122, 127 Triumphs, 135, 149 Tufa, 244, 247 Turf wall, 197, 198, 206 Tyrants, 53, 54, 247

"Ugrians," 29-31, 62 Ulpius Marcellus, 199, 211 Ulysses, 64, 248 Uriconium, 150, 179, 184 Ushant, 155 Uther, 244

Valens, 234 Valentia, 225, 234, 237, 240 Valentinian I., 230, 233 " II., 235 " III., 177, 246 Vallum, 205-207, 233 Vandals, 219, 237 Varus, 130 Veneti, 79-81 Verica, 125 Vericus, 130, 142, 143, 152 Verulam, 120, 127, 156, 157, 168, 227, 263 Vespasian, 133, 137, 159 Vexillatio, 210 Via Devana, 166, 167 Vicar of Britain, 240, 243 Victorinus, 218 Villages, 27, 44, 45, 129 Villas, 188, 189, 267 Vine-growing, 192 Visi-goths, 243 Volisius, 54 Vortigern, 245

Wagons, 36 Wall (of Hadrian), 174, 195, 196, 202-212 Wall (of London, etc.), 179 Water-supply, 60, 162, 211 Watling Street, 118, 166-170 Wattle churches, 254, 255, 265 Weald, 57, 189 Wells, 186 West Saxons, 248 Whitherne, 261, 262 Wight, I. of, 36, 133, 189, 224 Winchester, 175 Winter thorn, 254

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