CHAPTER III. Christmas Poetry (ii)

CHRISTMAS POETRY (II)

The French Noel--Latin Hymnody in Eighteenth-century France--Spanish Christmas Verse--Traditional Carols of Many Countries--Christmas Poetry in Protestant Germany--Post-Reformation Verse in England--Modern English Carols.

THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS.

By Fouquet.

(Musee Conde, Chantilly.)]

The Reformation marks a change in the character of Christmas poetry in England and the larger part of Germany, and, instead of following its development under Protestantism, it will be well to break off and turn awhile to countries where Catholic tradition remained unbroken. We shall come back later to Post-Reformation England and Protestant Germany.

In French{1} there is little or no Christmas poetry, religious in character, before the fifteenth century; the earlier carols that have come down to us are songs rather of feasting and worldly rejoicing than of sacred things. The true Noel begins to appear in fifteenth-century manuscripts, but it was not till the following century that it attained its fullest vogue and was spread all over the country by the printing presses. Such Noels seem to have been written by clerks or recognized poets, either for old airs or for specially composed music. "To a great extent," says Mr. Gregory Smith, "they anticipate the spirit which stimulated the Reformers to turn the popular and often obscene songs into good and godly ballads."{2}

Some of the early Noels are not unlike the English carols of the period, and are often half in Latin, half in French. Here are a few such "macaronic" verses:--

"Celebrons la naissance Nostri Salvatoris, |56| Qui fait la complaisance Dei sui Patris. Cet enfant tout aimable, In nocte media, Est ne dans une etable, De casta Maria.

* * * * *

Mille esprits angeliques, Juncti pastoribus, Chantent dans leur musique, Puer vobis natus, Au Dieu par qui nous sommes, Gloria in excelsis, Et la paix soit aux hommes Bonae voluntatis.

* * * * *

Qu'on ne soit insensible! Adeamus omnes A Dieu rendu passible, Propter nos mortales, Et tous, de compagnie, Deprecemur eum Qu'a la fin de la vie, Det regnum beatum."{3}

The sixteenth century is the most interesting Noel period; we find then a conflict of tendencies, a conflict between Gallic realism and broad humour and the love of refined language due to the study of the ancient classics. There are many anonymous pieces of this time, but three important Noelistes stand out by name: Lucas le Moigne, Cure of Saint Georges, Puy-la-Garde, near Poitiers; Jean Daniel, called "Maitre Mitou," a priest-organist at Nantes; and Nicholas Denisot of Le Mans, whose Noels appeared posthumously under the pseudonym of "Comte d'Alsinoys."

Lucas le Moigne represents the esprit gaulois, the spirit that is often called "Rabelaisian," though it is only one side of the genius of Rabelais. The good Cure was a contemporary of |57| the author of "Pantagruel." His "Chansons de Noels nouvaulx" was published in 1520, and contains carols in very varied styles, some naive and pious, others hardly quotable at the present day. One of his best-known pieces is a dialogue between the Virgin and the singers of the carol: Mary is asked and answers questions about the wondrous happenings of her life. Here are four verses about the Nativity:--

"Or nous dites, Marie, Les neuf mois accomplis, Naquit le fruit de vie, Comme l'Ange avoit dit? --Oui, sans nulle peine Et sans oppression, Naquit de tout le monde La vraie Redemption.

Or nous dites, Marie, Du lieu imperial, Fut-ce en chambre paree, Ou en Palais royal? --En une pauvre etable Ouverte a l'environ Ou n'avait feu, ni flambe Ni latte, ni chevron.

Or nous dites, Marie, Qui vous vint visiter; Les bourgeois de la ville Vous ont-ils confortee? --Oncque, homme ni femme N'en eut compassion, Non plus que d'un esclave D'etrange region.

* * * * *

Or nous dites, Marie, Des pauvres pastoureaux Qui gardaient es montagnes Leurs brebis & aigneaux. |58| --Ceux-la m'ont visitee Par grande affection; Moult me fut agreable Leur visitation."{4}

The influence of the "Pleiade," with its care for form, its respect for classical models, its enrichment of the French tongue with new Latin words, is shown by Jean Daniel, who also owes something to the poets of the late fifteenth century. Two stanzas may be quoted from him:--

"C'est ung tres grant mystere Qu'ung roy de si hault pris Vient naistre en lieu austere, En si meschant pourpris: Le Roy de tous les bons espritz, C'est Jesus nostre frere, Le Roy de tous les bons espritz, Duquel sommes apris.

Saluons le doulx Jesuchrist, Notre Dieu, notre frere, Saluons le doulx Jesuchrist, Chantons Noel d'esprit!

* * * * *

En luy faisant priere, Soyons de son party, Qu'en sa haulte emperiere Ayons lieu de party; Comme il nous a droict apparty, Jesus nostre bon frere, Comme il nous a droict apparty Au celeste convy. Saluons, etc. Amen. Noel."{5}

As for Denisot, I may give two charming verses from one of his pastorals:--

"Suz, Bergiez, en campaigne, Laissez la vos troppeaux, |59| Avant qu'on s'accompaigne, Enflez vos chalumeaux.

* * * * *

Enflez vos cornemuses, Dansez ensemblement, Et vos doucettes muses, Accollez doucement."{6}

One result of the Italian influences which came over France in the sixteenth century was a fondness for diminutives. Introduced into carols, these have sometimes a very graceful effect:--

"Entre le boeuf & le bouvet, Noel nouvellet, Voulust Jesus nostre maistre, En un petit hostelet, Noel nouvellet, En ce pauvre monde naistre, O Noel nouvellet!

Ne couche, ne bercelet, Noel nouvellet, Ne trouverent en cette estre, Fors ung petit drappelet, Noel nouvellet, Pour envelopper le maistre, O Noel nouvellet!"{7}

These diminutives are found again, though fewer, in a particularly delightful carol:--

"Laissez paitre vos bestes Pastoureaux, par monts et par vaux; Laissez paitre vos bestes, Et allons chanter Nau.

J'ai oui chanter le rossignol, Qui chantoit un chant si nouveau, Si haut, si beau, Si resonneau, |60|

Il m'y rompoit la tete, Tant il chantoit et flageoloit: Adonc pris ma houlette Pour aller voir Naulet. Laissez paitre, etc."{8}

The singer goes on to tell how he went with his fellow-shepherds and shepherdesses to Bethlehem:--

"Nous dimes tous une chanson Les autres en vinrent au son, Chacun prenant Son compagnon: Je prendrai Guillemette, Margot tu prendras gros Guillot; Qui prendra Peronelle? Ce sera Talebot. Laissez paitre, etc.

Ne chantons plus, nous tardons trop, Pensons d'aller courir le trot. Viens-tu, Margot?-- J'attends Guillot.-- J'ai rompu ma courette, Il faut ramancher mon sabot.-- Or, tiens cette aiguillette, Elle y servira trop. Laissez paitre, etc.

* * * * *

Nous courumes de grand' roideur Pour voir notre doux Redempteur Et Createur Et Formateur, Qui etait tendre d'aage Et sans linceux en grand besoin, Il gisait en la creche Sur un botteau de foin. Laissez paitre, etc. |61|

Sa mere avecque lui etait: Et Joseph si lui eclairait, Point ne semblait Au beau fillet, Il n'etait point son pere; Je l'apercus bien au cameau (visage) Il semblait a sa mere, Encore est-il plus beau. Laissez paitre, etc."

This is but one of a large class of French Noels which make the Nativity more real, more present, by representing the singer as one of a company of worshippers going to adore the Child. Often these are shepherds, but sometimes they are simply the inhabitants of a parish, a town, a countryside, or a province, bearing presents of their own produce to the little Jesus and His parents. Barrels of wine, fish, fowls, sucking-pigs, pastry, milk, fruit, firewood, birds in a cage--such are their homely gifts. Often there is a strongly satiric note: the peculiarities and weaknesses of individuals are hit off; the reputation of a place is suggested, a village whose people are famous for their stinginess offers cider that is half rain-water; elsewhere the inhabitants are so given to law-suits that they can hardly find time to go to Bethlehem.

Such Noels with their vivid local colour, are valuable pictures of the manners of their time. They are, unfortunately, too long for quotation here, but any reader who cares to follow up the subject will find some interesting specimens in a little collection of French carols that can be bought for ten centimes.{9} They are of various dates; some probably were written as late as the eighteenth century. In that century, and indeed in the seventeenth, the best Christmas verses are those of a provincial and rustic character, and especially those in patois; the more cultivated poets, with their formal classicism, can ill enter into the spirit of the festival. Of the learned writers the best is a woman, Francoise Paschal, of Lyons (b. about 1610); in spite of her Latinity she shows a real feeling for her subjects. Some of her Noels are dialogues between the sacred personages; one presents |62| Joseph and Mary as weary wayfarers seeking shelter at all the inns of Bethlehem and everywhere refused by host or hostess:--

"Saint Joseph.

Voyons la Rose-Rouge. Madame de ceans, Auriez-vous quelque bouge Pour de petites gens?

L'Hotesse.

Vous n'avez pas la mine D'avoir de grands tresors; Voyez chez ma voisine, Car, quant a moi, je dors.

Saint Joseph.

Monsieur des Trois-Couronnes, Avez-vous logement, Chez vous pour trois personnes, Quelque trou seulement.

L'Hote.

Vous perdez votre peine, Vous venez un peu tard, Ma maison est fort pleine, Allez quelqu'autre part."{10}

The most remarkable of the patois Noelistes of the seventeenth century are the Provencal Saboly and the Burgundian La Monnoye, the one kindly and tender, the other witty and sarcastic. Here is one of Saboly's Provencal Noels:--

"Quand la miejonue sounavo, Ai sauta dou liech au sou; Ai vist un bel ange que cantavo Milo fes pu dous qu'un roussignou.

Lei mastin dou vesinage Se soun toutes atroupa; |63| N'avien jamai vist aqueu visage Se soun tout-d'un-cop mes a japa.

Lei pastre dessus la paio Dourmien coume de soucas; Quand an aussi lou bru dei sounaio Au cresegu qu'ero lou souiras.

S'eron de gent resounable, Vendrien sens estre envita: Trouvarien dins un petit estable La lumiero emai la verita."{11}

As for La Monnoye, here is a translation of one of his satirical verses:--"When in the time of frost Jesus Christ came into the world the ass and ox warmed Him with their breath in the stable. How many asses and oxen I know in this kingdom of Gaul! How many asses and oxen I know who would not have done as much!"{12}

* * * * *

Apart from the rustic Noels, the eighteenth century produced little French Christmas poetry of any charm. Some of the carols most sung in French churches to-day belong, however, to this period, e.g., the "Venez, divin Messie" of the Abbe Pellegrin.{13}

* * * * *

One cannot leave the France of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries without some mention of its Latin hymnody. From a date near 1700, apparently, comes the sweet and solemn "Adeste, fideles"; by its music and its rhythm, perhaps, rather than by its actual words it has become the best beloved of Christmas hymns. The present writer has heard it sung with equal reverence and heartiness in English, German, French, and Italian churches, and no other hymn seems so full of the spirit of Christmas devotion--wonder, |64| awe, and tenderness, and the sense of reconciliation between Heaven and earth. Composed probably in France, "Adeste, fideles" came to be used in English as well as French Roman Catholic churches during the eighteenth century. In 1797 it was sung at the chapel of the Portuguese Embassy in London; hence no doubt its once common name of "Portuguese hymn." It was first used in an Anglican church in 1841, when the Tractarian Oakley translated it for his congregation at Margaret Street Chapel, London.

Another fine Latin hymn of the eighteenth-century French Church is Charles Coffin's "Jam desinant suspiria."{14} It appeared in the Parisian Breviary in 1736, and is well known in English as "God from on high hath heard."

* * * * *

The Revolution and the decay of Catholicism in France seem to have killed the production of popular carols. The later nineteenth century, however, saw a revival of interest in the Noel as a literary form. In 1875 the bicentenary of Saboly's death was celebrated by a competition for a Noel in the Provencal tongue, and something of the same kind has been done in Brittany.{15} The Noel has attracted by its aesthetic charm even poets who are anything but devout; Theophile Gautier, for instance, wrote a graceful Christmas carol, "Le ciel est noir, la terre est blanche."

On a general view of the vernacular Christmas poetry of France it must be admitted that the devotional note is not very strong; there is indeed a formal reverence, a courtly homage, paid to the Infant Saviour, and the miraculous in the Gospel story is taken for granted; but there is little sense of awe and mystery. In harmony with the realistic instincts of the nation, everything is dramatically, very humanly conceived; at times, indeed, the personages of the Nativity scenes quite lose their sacred character, and the treatment degenerates into grossness. At its best, however, the French Noel has a gaiety and a grace, joined to a genuine, if not very deep, piety, that are extremely charming. Reading these rustic songs, we are carried in imagination to French countrysides; we think of the long walk through the snow to the Midnight Mass, the cheerful reveillon spread on the |65| return, the family gathered round the hearth, feasting on wine and chestnuts and boudins, and singing in traditional strains the joys of Noel.

* * * * *

Across the Pyrenees, in Spain, the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries saw a great output of Christmas verse. Among the chief writers were Juan Lopez de Ubeda, Francisco de Ocana, and Jose de Valdivielso.{16} Their villancicos remind one of the paintings of Murillo; they have the same facility, the same tender and graceful sentiment, without much depth. They lack the homely flavour, the quaintness that make the French and German folk-carols so delightful; they have not the rustic tang, and yet they charm by their simplicity and sweetness.

Here are a few stanzas by Ocana:--

"Dentro de un pobre pesebre y cobijado con heno yace Jesus Nazareno.

En el heno yace echado el hijo de Dios eterno, para librar del infierno al hombre que hubo criado, y por matar el pecado el heno tiene por bueno nuestro Jesus Nazareno.

Esta entre dos animales que le calientan del frio, quien remedia nuestros males con su grande poderio: es su reino y senorio el mundo y el cielo sereno, y agora duerme en el heno.

Tiene por bueno sufrir el frio y tanta fortuna, sin tener ropa ninguna con que se abrigar ni cubrir, |66| y por darnos el vivir padecio frio en el heno, nuestro Jesus Nazareno."{17}

More of a peasant flavour is found in some snatches of Christmas carols given by Fernan Caballero in her sketch, "La Noche de Navidad."

"Ha nacido en un portal, Llenito de telaranas, Entre la mula y el buey El Redentor de las almas.

* * * * *

En el portal de Belen Hay estrella, sol y luna: La Virgen y San Jose Y el nino que esta en la cuna.

En Belen tocan a fuego, Del portal sale la llama, Es una estrella del cielo, Que ha caido entre la paja.

Yo soy un pobre gitano Que vengo de Egipto aqui, Y al nino de Dios le traigo Un gallo quiquiriqui

Yo soy un pobre gallego Que vengo de la Galicia, Y al nino de Dios le traigo Lienzo para una camisa. |67|

Al nino recien nacido Todos le traen un don; Yo soy chico y nada tengo; Le traigo mi corazon."{18}

In nearly every western language one finds traditional Christmas carols. Europe is everywhere alive with them; they spring up like wild flowers. Some interesting Italian specimens are given by Signor de Gubernatis in his "Usi Natalizi." Here are a few stanzas from a Bergamesque cradle-song of the Blessed Virgin:--

"Dormi, dormi, o bel bambin, Re divin. Dormi, dormi, o fantolin. Fa la nanna, o caro figlio, Re del Ciel, Tanto bel, grazioso giglio.

Chiuedi i luemi, o mio tesor, Dolce amor, Di quest' alma, almo Signor; Fa la nanna, o regio infante, Sopra il fien, Caro ben, celeste amante.

Perche piangi, o bambinell, Forse il giel Ti da noia, o l'asinell? Fa la nanna, o paradiso Del mio cor, Redentor, ti bacio il viso."{19}

|68| With this lullaby may be compared a singularly lovely and quite untranslatable Latin cradle-song of unknown origin:--

"Dormi, fili, dormi! mater Cantat unigenito: Dormi, puer, dormi! pater, Nato clamat parvulo: Millies tibi laudes canimus Mille, mille, millies.

Lectum stravi tibi soli, Dormi, nate bellule! Stravi lectum foeno molli: Dormi, mi animule. Millies tibi laudes canimus Mille, mille, millies.

Ne quid desit, sternam rosis, Sternam foenum violis, Pavimentum hyacinthis Et praesepe liliis. Millies tibi laudes canimus Mille, mille, millies. |69|

Si vis musicam, pastores Convocabo protinus; Illis nulli sunt priores; Nemo canit castius. Millies tibi laudes canimus Mille, mille, millies."{21}

Curious little poems are found in Latin and other languages, making a dialogue of the cries of animals at the news of Christ's birth.{22} The following French example is fairly typical:--

"Comme les bestes autrefois Parloient mieux latin que francois, Le coq, de loin voyant le fait, S'ecria: Christus natus est. Le boeuf, d'un air tout ebaubi, Demande: Ubi? Ubi? Ubi? La chevre, se tordant le groin, Repond que c'est a Bethleem. Maistre Baudet, curiosus De l'aller voir, dit: Eamus; Et, droit sur ses pattes, le veau Beugle deux fois: Volo, Volo!"{23}

In Wales, in the early nineteenth century, carol-singing was more popular, perhaps, than in England; the carols were sung to the harp, in church at the Plygain or early morning service on Christmas Day, in the homes of the people, and at the doors of the houses by visitors.{24} In Ireland, too, the custom of carol-singing then prevailed.{25} Dr. Douglas Hyde, in his "Religious Songs of Connacht," gives and translates an interesting Christmas hymn in Irish, from which two verses may be quoted. They set forth the great paradox of the Incarnation:--

"Little babe who art so great, Child so young who art so old, |70| In the manger small his room, Whom not heaven itself could hold.

Father--not more old than thou? Mother--younger, can it be? Older, younger is the Son, Younger, older, she than he."{27}

Even in dour Scotland, with its hatred of religious festivals, some kind of carolling survived here and there among Highland folk, and a remarkable and very "Celtic" Christmas song has been translated from the Gaelic by Mr. J. A. Campbell. It begins:--

"Sing hey the Gift, sing ho the Gift, Sing hey the Gift of the Living, Son of the Dawn, Son of the Star, Son of the Planet, Son of the Far [twice], Sing hey the Gift, sing ho the Gift."{28}

THE FLIGHT INTO EGYPT: THE REST BY THE WAY

MASTER OF THE SEVEN SORROWS OF MARY (ALSO ATTRIBUTED TO JOACHIM PATINIR)

(Vienna: Imperial Gallery)]

SINGING "VOM HIMMEL HOCH" FROM A CHURCH TOWER AT CHRISTMAS.

By Ludwig Richter.]

Before I close this study with a survey of Christmas poetry in England after the Reformation, it may be interesting to follow the developments in Protestant Germany. The Reformation gave a great impetus to German religious song, and we owe to it some of the finest of Christmas hymns. It is no doubt largely due to Luther, that passionate lover of music and folk-poetry, that hymns have practically become the liturgy of German Protestantism; yet he did but give typical expression to the natural instincts of his countrymen for song. Luther, though a rebel, was no Puritan; we can hardly call him an iconoclast; he had a conservative mind, which only gradually became loosened from its old attachments. His was an essentially artistic nature: "I would fain," he said, "see all arts, especially music, in the service of Him who has given and created them," and in the matter of hymnody he continued, in many respects, the mediaeval German tradition. Homely, kindly, a lover of children, he had a deep feeling for the festival of Christmas; and not only did he translate into German "A solis ortus cardine" and "Veni, redemptor |71| gentium," but he wrote for his little son Hans one of the most delightful and touching of all Christmas hymns--"Vom Himmel hoch, da komm ich her."

"Vom Himmel hoch, da komm ich her, Ich bring euch gute neue Maer, Der guten Maer bring ich so viel, Davon ich singen und sagen will.

Euch ist ein Kindlein heut gebor'n Von einer Jungfrau auserkor'n, Ein Kindelein so zart und fein, Das soll eu'r Freud und Wonne sein.

* * * * *

Merk auf, mein Herz, und sich dort hin: Was liegt doch in dem Kripplein drin? Wess ist das schoene Kindelein? Es ist das liebe Jesulein.

* * * * *

Ach Herr, du Schoepfer aller Ding, Wie bist du worden so gering, Dass du da liegst auf duerrem Gras, Davon ein Rind und Esel ass?

* * * * *

Ach, mein herzliebes Jesulein, Mach dir ein rein sanft Bettelein, Zu ruhen in mein's Herzens Schrein, Dass ich nimmer vergesse dein.

* * * * *

Davon ich allzeit froehlich sei, Zu springen, singen immer frei Das rechte Lied dem Gottessohn Mit Herzenslust, den suessen Ton."{29}

|72| "Vom Himmel hoch" has qualities of simplicity, directness, and warm human feeling which link it to the less ornate forms of carol literature. Its first verse is adapted from a secular song; its melody may, perhaps, have been composed by Luther himself. There is another Christmas hymn of Luther's, too--"Vom Himmel kam der Engel Schar"--written for use when "Vom Himmel hoch" was thought too long, and he also composed additional verses for the mediaeval "Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ."

"Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ, Dass du Mensch geboren bist Von einer Jungfrau, das ist wahr, Des freuet sich der Engel Schar. Kyrieleis!

Des ew'gen Vaters einig Kind Jetzt man in der Krippe find't, In unser armes Fleisch und Blut Verkleidet sich das ewig Gut. Kyrieleis! |73|

Den aller Weltkreis nie beschloss, Der lieget in Marie'n Schoss; Er ist ein Kindlein worden klein, Der alle Ding' erhaelt allein. Kyrieleis!"{31}

The first stanza alone is mediaeval, the remaining six of the hymn are Luther's.

The Christmas hymns of Paul Gerhardt, the seventeenth-century Berlin pastor, stand next to Luther's. They are more subjective, more finished, less direct and forcible. Lacking the finest qualities of poetry, they are nevertheless impressive by their dignity and heartiness. Made for music, the words alone hardly convey the full power of these hymns. They should be heard sung to the old chorales, massive, yet sweet, by the lusty voices of a German congregation. To English people they are probably best known through the verses introduced into the "Christmas Oratorio," where the old airs are given new beauty by Bach's marvellous harmonies. The tone of devotion, one feels, in Gerhardt and Bach is the same, immeasurably greater as is the genius of the composer; in both there is a profound joy in the Redemption begun by the Nativity, a robust faith joined to a deep sense of the mystery of suffering, and a keen sympathy with childhood, a tender fondness for the Infant King.

|74| The finest perhaps of Gerhardt's hymns is the Advent "Wie soll ich dich empfangen?" ("How shall I fitly meet Thee?"), which comes early in the "Christmas Oratorio." More closely connected with the Nativity, however, are the Weihnachtslieder, "Wir singen dir, Emanuel," "O Jesu Christ, dein Kripplein ist," "Froehlich soll mein Herze springen," "Ich steh an deiner Krippen hier," and others. I give a few verses from the third:--

"Froehlich soll mein Herze springen Dieser Zeit, Da fuer Freud Alle Engel singen. Hoert, hoert, wie mit vollen Choren Alle Luft Laute ruft: Christus ist geboren.

* * * * *

Nun, er liegt in seiner Krippen, Ruft zu sich Mich und dich, Spricht mit suessen Lippen: Lasset fahrn, O lieben Brueder Was euch quaelt, Was euch fehlt; Ich bring alles wieder.

* * * * *

Suesses Heil, lass dich umfangen; Lass mich dir, Meine Zier, Unverrueckt anhangen. Du bist meines Lebens Leben; Nun kann ich Mich durch dich Wohl zufrieden geben."{33}

|75| One more German Christmas hymn must be mentioned, Gerhard Tersteegen's "Jauchzet, ihr Himmel, frohlocket, ihr englischen Choere." Tersteegen represents one phase of the mystical and emotional reaction against the religious formalism and indifference of the eighteenth century. In the Lutheran Church the Pietists, though they never seceded, somewhat resembled the English Methodists; the Moravians formed a separate community, while from the "Reformed" or Calvinistic Church certain circles of spiritually-minded people, who drew inspiration from the mediaeval mystics and later writers like Boehme and Madame Guyon, gathered into more or less independent groups for religious intercourse. Of these last Tersteegen is a representative singer. Here are three verses from his best known Christmas hymn:--

"Jauchzet, ihr Himmel, frohlocket, ihr englischen Choere, Singet dem Herrn, dem Heiland der Menschen, zur Ehre: Sehet doch da! Gott will so freundlich und nah Zu den Verlornen sich kehren. |76|

Koenig der Ehren, aus Liebe geworden zum Kinde, Dem ich auch wieder mein Herz in der Liebe verbinde; Du sollst es sein, Den ich erwaehle allein, Ewig entsag' ich der Suende.

Treuer Immanuel, werd' auch in mir neu geboren; Komm doch, mein Heiland, und lass mich nicht laenger verloren; Wohne in mir, Mach mich ganz eines mit dir, Den du zum Leben erkoren."{35}

The note of personal religion, as distinguished from theological doctrine, is stronger in German Christmas poetry than in that of any other nation--the birth of Christ in the individual soul, not merely the redemption of man in general, is a central idea.

* * * * *

We come back at last to England. The great carol period is, as has already been said, the fifteenth, and the first half of the sixteenth, century; after the Reformation the English domestic Christmas largely loses its religious colouring, and the best carols of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries are songs of |77| feasting and pagan ceremonies rather than of the Holy Child and His Mother. There is no lack of fine Christmas verse in the Elizabethan and early Stuart periods, but for the most part it belongs to the oratory and the chamber rather than the hall. The Nativity has become a subject for private contemplation, for individual devotion, instead of, as in the later Middle Ages, a matter for common jubilation, a wonder-story that really happened, in which, all alike and all together, the serious and the frivolous could rejoice, something that, with all its marvel, could be taken as a matter of course, like the return of the seasons or the rising of the sun on the just and on the unjust.

English Christmas poetry after the mid-sixteenth century is, then, individual rather than communal in its spirit; it is also a thing less of the people, more of the refined and cultivated few. The Puritanism which so deeply affected English religion was abstract rather than dramatic in its conception of Christianity, it was concerned less with the events of the Saviour's life than with Redemption as a transaction between God and man; St. Paul and the Old Testament rather than the gospels were its inspiration. Moreover, the material was viewed not as penetrated by and revealing the spiritual, but as sheer impediment blocking out the vision of spiritual things. Hence the extremer Puritans were completely out of touch with the sensuous poetry of Christmas, a festival which, as we shall see, they actually suppressed when they came into power.

The singing of sacred carols by country people continued, indeed, but the creative artistic impulse was lost. True carols after the Reformation tend to be doggerel, and no doubt many of the traditional pieces printed in such collections as Bramley and Stainer's{37} are debased survivals from the Middle Ages, or perhaps new words written for old tunes. Such carols as "God rest you merry, gentlemen," have unspeakably delightful airs, and the words charm us moderns by their quaintness and rusticity, but they are far from the exquisite loveliness of the mediaeval |78| things. Gleams of great beauty are, however, sometimes found amid matter that in the process of transmission has almost ceased to be poetry. Here, for instance, are five stanzas from the traditional "Cherry-tree Carol":--

"As Joseph was a-walking, He heard an angel sing: 'This night shall be born Our heavenly King.

'He neither shall be born In housen nor in hall, Nor in the place of Paradise, But in an ox's stall.

'He neither shall be clothed In purple nor in pall, But all in fair linen As wear babies all.

'He neither shall be rocked In silver nor in gold, But in a wooden cradle That rocks on the mould.

'He neither shall be christened In white wine nor red, But with fair spring water With which we were christened.'"

The old carols sung by country folk have often not much to do with the Nativity; they are sometimes rhymed lives of Christ or legends of the Holy Childhood. Of the latter class the strangest is "The Bitter Withy," discovered in Herefordshire by Mr. Frank Sidgwick. It tells how the little Jesus asked three lads to play with Him at ball. But they refused:--

"'O we are lords' and ladies' sons, Born in bower or in hall; And you are but a poor maid's child, Born in an oxen's stall.' |79|

'If I am but a poor maid's child, Born in an oxen's stall, I will let you know at the very latter end That I am above you all.'

So he built him a bridge with the beams of the sun, And over the sea went he, And after followed the three jolly jerdins, And drowned they were all three.

Then Mary mild called home her child, And laid him across her knee, And with a handful of green withy twigs She gave him slashes three.

'O the withy, O the withy, O bitter withy That causes me to smart! O the withy shall be the very first tree That perishes at the heart.'"

From these popular ballads, mediaeval memories in the rustic mind, we must return to the devotional verse of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Two of the greatest poets of the Nativity, the Roman priests Southwell and Crashaw, are deeply affected by the wave of mysticism which passed over Europe in their time. Familiar as is Southwell's "The Burning Babe," few will be sorry to find it here:--

"As I in hoary winter's night Stood shivering in the snow, Surprised I was with sudden heat, Which made my heart to glow; And lifting up a fearful eye To view what fire was near, A pretty Babe all burning bright Did in the air appear; Who, scorched with excessive heat, Such floods of tears did shed, As though His floods should quench His flames Which with His tears were fed. |80| 'Alas!' quoth He, 'but newly born, In fiery heats I fry, Yet none approach to warm their hearts Or feel my fire, but I! My faultless breast the furnace is, The fuel, wounding thorns; Love is the fire, and sighs the smoke, The ashes, shame and scorns; The fuel Justice layeth on, And Mercy blows the coals, The metal in this furnace wrought Are men's defiled souls, For which, as now on fire I am, To work them to their good, So will I melt into a bath, To wash them in my blood.' With this he vanished out of sight, And swiftly shrunk away: And straight I called unto mind That it was Christmas Day."{38}

As for Crashaw,

"That the great angel-blinding light should shrink His blaze to shine in a poor shepherd's eye, That the unmeasured God so low should sink As Pris'ner in a few poor rags to lie, That from His mother's breast He milk should drink Who feeds with nectar heaven's fair family, That a vile manger His low bed should prove Who in a throne of stars thunders above:

That He, whom the sun serves, should faintly peep Through clouds of infant flesh; that He the old Eternal Word should be a Child and weep, That He who made the fire should fear the cold: That heaven's high majesty His court should keep In a clay cottage, by each blast controll'd: That glory's self should serve our griefs and fears, And free Eternity submit to years--"{39}

such are the wondrous paradoxes celebrated in his glowing imagery. The contrast of the winter snow with the burning |81| heat of Incarnate Love, of the blinding light of Divinity with the night's darkness, indeed the whole paradox of the Incarnation--Infinity in extremest limitation--is nowhere realized with such intensity as by him. Yet, magnificent as are his best lines, his verse sometimes becomes too like the seventeenth-century Jesuit churches, with walls overladen with decoration, with great languorous pictures and air heavy with incense; and then we long for the dewy freshness of the early carols.

The representative Anglican poets of the seventeenth century, Herbert and Vaughan, scarcely rise to their greatest heights in their treatment of Christmas, but with them as with the Romanists it is the mystical note that is dominant. Herbert sings:--

"O Thou, whose glorious, yet contracted, light, Wrapt in night's mantle, stole into a manger; Since my dark soul and brutish is Thy right, To man, of all beasts, be not Thou a stranger.

Furnish and deck my soul, that thou may'st have A better lodging than a rack or grave."{40}

And Vaughan:--

"I would I had in my best part Fit rooms for Thee! or that my heart Were so clean as Thy manger was! But I am all filth, and obscene: Yet, if Thou wilt, Thou canst make clean.

Sweet Jesu! will then. Let no more This leper haunt and soil thy door! Cure him, ease him, O release him! And let once more, by mystic birth, The Lord of life be born in earth."{41}

In Herrick--how different a country parson from Herbert!--we find a sort of pagan piety towards the Divine Infant which, |82| though purely English in its expression, makes us think of some French Noeliste or some present-day Italian worshipper of the Bambino:--

"Instead of neat enclosures Of interwoven osiers, Instead of fragrant posies Of daffodils and roses, Thy cradle, kingly Stranger, As gospel tells, Was nothing else But here a homely manger.

But we with silks not crewels, With sundry precious jewels, And lily work will dress Thee; And, as we dispossess Thee Of clouts, we'll make a chamber, Sweet Babe, for Thee, Of ivory, And plaster'd round with amber."{42}

Poems such as Herrick's to the Babe of Bethlehem reveal in their writers a certain childlikeness, an insouciance without irreverence, the spirit indeed of a child which turns to its God quite simply and naturally, which makes Him after its own child-image, and sees Him as a friend who can be pleased with trifles--almost, in fact, as a glorious playmate. Such a nature has no intense feeling of sin, but can ask for forgiveness and then forget; religion for it is rather an outward ritual to be duly and gracefully performed than an inward transforming power. Herrick is a strange exception among the Anglican singers of Christmas.

Milton's great Nativity hymn, with its wondrous blending of pastoral simplicity and classical conceits, is too familiar for quotation here; it may be suggested, however, that this work of the poet's youth is far more Anglican than Puritan in its spirit.

Sweet and solemn Spenserian echoes are these verses from Giles Fletcher's "Christ's Victory in Heaven":-- |83|

"Who can forget--never to be forgot-- The time, that all the world in slumber lies, When, like the stars, the singing angels shot To earth, and heaven awaked all his eyes To see another sun at midnight rise On earth? Was never sight of pareil fame, For God before man like Himself did frame, But God Himself now like a mortal man became.

A Child He was, and had not learnt to speak, That with His word the world before did make; His mother's arms Him bore, He was so weak, That with one hand the vaults of heaven could shake, See how small room my infant Lord doth take, Whom all the world is not enough to hold! Who of His years, or of His age hath told? Never such age so young, never a child so old."{43}

The old lullaby tradition is continued by Wither, though the infant in the cradle is an ordinary human child, who is rocked to sleep with the story of his Lord:--

"A little Infant once was He, And strength in weakness then was laid Upon His virgin-mother's knee, That power to thee might be conveyed. Sweet baby, then, forbear to weep; Be still, my babe; sweet baby, sleep.

* * * * *

Within a manger lodged thy Lord, Where oxen lay and asses fed; Warm rooms we do to thee afford, An easy cradle or a bed. Sweet baby, then, forbear to weep; Be still, my babe; sweet baby, sleep."{44}

When we come to the eighteenth century we find, where we might least expect it, among the moral verses of Dr. Watts, a charming cradle-song conceived in just the same way:-- |84|

"Hush, my dear, lie still and slumber, Holy angels guard thy bed! Heavenly blessings without number Gently falling on thy head.

* * * * *

Soft and easy is thy cradle; Coarse and hard thy Saviour lay. When His birthplace was a stable, And His softest bed was hay.

* * * * *

Lo He slumbers in His manger Where the horned oxen fed; --Peace, my darling, here's no danger; Here's no ox a-near thy bed."{45}

It is to the eighteenth century that the three most popular of English Christmas hymns belong. Nahum Tate's "While shepherds watched their flocks by night"--one of the very few hymns (apart from metrical psalms) in common use in the Anglican Church before the nineteenth century--is a bald and apparently artless paraphrase of St. Luke which, by some accident, has attained dignity, and is aided greatly by the simple and noble tune now attached to it. Charles Wesley's "Hark, the herald angels sing," or--as it should be--"Hark, how all the welkin rings," is much admired by some, but to the present writer seems a mere piece of theological rhetoric. Byrom's "Christians, awake, salute the happy morn," has the stiffness and formality or its period, but it is not without a certain quaintness and dignity. One could hardly expect fine Christmas poetry of an age whose religion was on the one hand staid, rational, unimaginative, and on the other "Evangelical" in the narrow sense, finding its centre in the Atonement rather than the Incarnation.

The revived mediaevalism, religious and aesthetic, of the nineteenth century, produced a number of Christmas carols. Some, like Swinburne's "Three damsels in the queen's chamber," with |85| its exquisite verbal music and delightful colour, and William Morris's less successful "Masters, in this hall," and "Outlanders, whence come ye last?" are the work of unbelievers and bear witness only to the aesthetic charm of the Christmas story; but there are others, mostly from Roman or Anglo-Catholic sources, of real religious inspiration. The most spontaneous are Christina Rossetti's, whose haunting rhythms and delicate feeling are shown at their best in her songs of the Christ Child. More studied and self-conscious are the austere Christmas verses of Lionel Johnson and the graceful carols of Professor Selwyn Image. In one poem Mr. Image strikes a deeper and stronger note than elsewhere; its solemn music takes us back to an earlier century:--

"Consider, O my soul, what morn is this! Whereon the eternal Lord of all things made, For us, poor mortals, and our endless bliss, Came down from heaven; and, in a manger laid, The first, rich, offerings of our ransom paid: Consider, O my soul, what morn is this!"{46}

Not a few contemporary poets have given us Christmas carols or poems. Among the freshest and most natural are those of Katharine Tynan, while Mr. Gilbert Chesterton has written some Christmas lyrics full of colour and vitality, and with a true mystical quality. Singing of Christmas, Mr. Chesterton is at his best; he has instinctive sympathy with the spirit of the festival, its human kindliness, its democracy, its sacramentalism, its exaltation of the child:--

"The thatch of the roof was as golden Though dusty the straw was and old; The wind had a peal as of trumpets, Though blowing and barren and cold. |86|

The mother's hair was a glory, Though loosened and torn; For under the eaves in the gloaming A child was born."{47}

Thus opens a fine poem on the Nativity as symbolizing miracle of birth, of childhood with its infinite possibilities, eternal renewal of faith and hope.

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