CHAPTER III.. Iii.--the Earless Seal Family (phocidæ).

III.--THE EARLESS SEAL FAMILY (PHOCIDÆ).

General Characteristics--Peculiar Formation of the Hind Legs--Dentition--Swimming--THE COMMON SEAL--Range--Fight between a Seal and Salmon--Colour--Appearance--Annual Catch--Use of Skins in Greenland--Habits--THE RINGED SEAL--Appearance--Various Names--Odour--Flesh--Skin Clothes--Haunts--Modes of Capture--Range--THE GREENLAND, or SADDLEBACK SEAL--Habits--Appearance--Names--Range--Migrations--“Seals’ Weddings”--Five Stages of Colour--Females--Weight--Seal Fisheries--Hunting--Implements of Slaughter--Various Operations--The Sealers--Oil, Skins, &c.--THE BEARDED SEAL--THE GREY SEAL--THE MONK SEAL--THE CRESTED OR BLADDER-NOSE SEAL--Range--Size--Ferocity--Character of the so-called Crest--Dentition--Colour--THE ELEPHANT SEAL--Peculiar Range--Proboscis--Scammon’s Account--Habits--Hunting--Hardships of the Hunters--Recreations of the Men--Blubber, Oil, and Skins--ROSS’S LARGE-EYED SEAL--THE SEA LEOPARD--WEDDELL’S SEAL--THE CRAB-EATING SEAL--Concluding Remarks--The Slaughter of Seals--Remedies.

Though the want of external ears is quite characteristic of this family, in contradistinction to the last, the fact of the Common Seals’ limb-construction being such as to prevent them from using their four feet on land is a point of special importance. In the general shape of the body and the appearance of the skin they resemble the Sea Lions more than the Walrus. The fore limbs of the Phocidæ are relatively and absolutely shorter than in the Otariidæ. They are so attached to the body as to leave little else free then the hand. The nails are generally longish and claw-like, and the thumb does not so greatly exceed the other fingers as it does in the Otaries. It is on the hind legs that the main distinction is based. While the thigh-bones are uncommonly short, the leg-bones are relatively long, and directed backwards in a line with the spine, and closely bound to the tail by membrane as far as the heel itself. This mechanical arrangement prevents the leg from being thrown forwards, and therefore it is of no use in land progression. The hind feet accordingly mostly rest in a line with the axis of the body, and when spread out form a kind of broad pair of oars; or the soles approximated give a long rudder or fish-tail-like termination. The tail itself is quite conspicuous behind the heels. The outer or great toe, and the inner or little toe, are almost of equal length, the preponderance being in favour of the former, while the three middle toes are smaller in size, and the nails of all are claw-like. The head in general is rounder than that of the Otaries, the eye is much larger and the whiskers somewhat less profuse. Their brain is more spherical. In several minor particulars the skull differs from that of the Otaries, and especially in the dentition is there a marked difference. Three types prevail, of which the Common Seal, the Sea Leopards, and the Crested, or Hooded Seals, are examples. In the first, the dental formula is--Incisors, (3-3)/(2-2); canines, (1-1)/(1-1); premolars, (4-4)/(4-4); molars, (1-1)/(1-1) = 34. The differences in number and shape in the two others we shall notice in the context. With respect to the skeleton generally, bone for bone, the distinctions rather lie in their relative lengths and dimensions than in special difference of construction. The hip-bones, the hind leg-bones, and those of the fore feet, appreciably differ and correspond to the peculiarities of progression, &c., in the two groups. On land, this family (Phocidæ) lies on the belly, throws the hind feet back, and by a series of short jerking movements, so-called saltatory efforts, or a curious kind of dragging motion, grovels abdominally on the ground, the short fore-paws either pressed against the body, or, on rocky rougher ground, otherwise slightly aiding action. This movement of the Common Seal doubtless most people have witnessed, and it is quite unique not only amongst the Carnivora, but the whole of the Mammalia. In swimming, the Seals seldom use their fore feet, while the Otaries use them as powerful sweeps. On the other hand, in the Seals the hind limbs have a kind of sculling movement, comparable to a fish’s tail, the sinuous strokes bearing some analogy to those of a screw-propeller. Less swift than the Otaries, they nevertheless move with extraordinary rapidity and power in the water.

In the last family, the Eared Seals, it was pointed out that they had a peculiar geographical distribution, wherein certain forms had alone a northern habitat, and similarly others pertained to a southern. Almost identically, the Earless Seals have northern and southern representatives, but the Elephant Seal ranges both north and south; and the Monk Seal, which, though properly speaking belonging to the northern area, inhabits a strip running east to west within the Temperate zone, indeed nearly approaching the Torrid. It is also worth mention that Van Beneden, Leidy, and others have described quite a number of sub-fossil species, and Phocine genera; though the data for the latter are by no means complete, and probably future researches will considerably modify the conclusions arrived at by these authors. These Seal remains have all been obtained in the Temperate parallel, and regions where the sea no longer flows. In referring to the Earless Seals, as in the case of the Otaries, we shall somewhat follow their geographical distribution.

THE COMMON SEAL.--This most familiar species of the group is as ludicrous in its gait on land as it is surpassingly elegant in its movements in water. Its range is widespread, namely, the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, and seaboard facing the Atlantic from Spain to Spitzbergen, from Florida along the American coast to Greenland, also near Iceland and Jan Mayen. It likewise abounds on the Scandinavian coasts, and in the Baltic, the British islands being favoured with many visitors. Being a shy, timid, though inquisitive animal, it now frequents the wild, lonely shores of Scotland and Ireland; but in former times even the Isle of Wight and the Cornish coast were famous for the number of their Seals. Still they sometimes visit river-mouths. For example, in 1877, between seventy and eighty large and small Seals, and of different colours, were seen sunning themselves on the sands at low tide at Abertay. Some of these must have gone up the river towards, or even beyond, Dundee, for at West Ferry a desperate and protracted fight between a Seal and a huge Salmon was witnessed, not far from the shore, by several parties. The encounter lasted for more than an hour, the Seal dashing wildly about after its equally agile prey. The Salmon was occasionally tossed into the air, after the fashion of a Cat with a Mouse. Spite of the exertions of the noble fish, it could not escape its pursuer, and at length becoming fairly exhausted, succumbed. The victor frequently rose to the surface with its quivering prey in its mouth ere finally feasting on crimped Salmon.

The Common Seal is of a yellowish-grey colour, spotted above with black and brown, so as to give a mottled appearance, while below it is of a whitish or silvery grey. Ordinarily the hairs are shining and stiff, the colour being dependent somewhat on their being moist or dry; when the former, dark grey predominates. In length it varies from three to six feet, the head being about a tenth part. The roundish head has a short muzzle, prominent whiskers, and large expressive eyes. The skull is distinguished by peculiarities in the shape of the palate and cheek-bones, and by the oblique position of the molar teeth.

Although as valuable as certain other forms hunted by the sealers, its numbers in the Polar regions are comparatively smaller, so that it is not separately pursued by them, though the Greenlanders have a high appreciation of its worth. Dr. R. Brown says the flesh is looked upon as the most palatable of all “Seal-beef,” and he further remarks, “that no more acceptable present can be given to a Greenland damsel than a skin of the Kassigiak.” Dr. Rink estimates their annual catch in Danish Greenland between 1,000 and 2,000, and he says that the skin is highly valued for making clothes. It is found all the year round on these coasts, though it more frequently dwells near the river-mouths, and hence has been called the Fresh-water Seal. It bears a variety of names, both local and in different countries, and also according to age. In Greenland the young are produced in June. The cub is at first pure white, a few days later becoming darker, and changing as age proceeds. Though very quiet in disposition it can take its own part when attacked, as the reader of Scott’s “Antiquary” (Chapter xxx.) may remember, where Captain McIntyre’s adventure with the Phoca is narrated with Sir Walter’s usual graphic power. The same author’s lines--

“Rude Heiskar’s Seals through surges dark Will long pursue the Minstrel’s bark,”

are in reality no poet’s licence, inasmuch as many instances are recorded of music--a flute, or even whistling, for example--bringing them to the surface. Their docility and intelligence are noted from the times of Pliny, and Professor Trail relates how one became a regular sociable kitchen pet. Of another, kept for six months in Shetland, the domesticity was quite marked. Called from a distance, even when in the sea, it would answer plaintively, swim ashore, and make its ungainly way over stones and grass to its lodge. This “Sealchie” amusing herself in the sea one day, a sudden snowstorm came on, during which some wild Seals approached and coaxed her off. A great number of interesting stories are related of the Common Seal, which Phoque lore, however, I need not stay to consider.

THE RINGED SEAL.--This animal has considerable likeness to the last, excepting the fact that it is a very much smaller animal, seldom reaching more than three or four feet in length. It is blackish-grey above, the spotting being marked with oval whitish rings. Below, it is paler in colour, and its hair is softer and usually rougher than the Common Seal’s. Besides these external features, the formation of the cheek and palate bones, and the straight line of the molar, distinguish it from Ph. vitulina. In addition to the above name, it is also called Fœtid and Fjord Seal. It is the “Neitsik” of the Greenlanders; “Floe Rat” of the sealers; and is known as “bodack,” or “old man,” in the Hebrides. Other popular names are given it in different countries. The callous Eskimo are not insensible to the disgusting odour exhaled from the old males, and hence the name Fœtida. Dr. Rink says that when the large fellows captured in the interior ice-fjords are brought into a hut, and cut up on its floor, a smell is emitted resembling something between that of assafœtida and onions. The flesh of the young, notwithstanding, both he and Dr. R. Brown aver, is sufficiently palatable to an educated taste; and the latter even states that after a time he and his companions became “quite epicurean connoisseurs in all the qualities, titbits, and dishes of the well-beloved Neitsik. The skin,” he goes on to say, “forms the chief material of clothing in North Greenland. All of the οἱ πολλοί dress in Neitsik breeches and jumpers; and we sojourners from a far country soon encased ourselves in the somewhat hispid, but most comfortable, Neitsik nether garments. It is only high dignitaries like ‘Herr Inspektor’ that can afford such extravagance as a Kassigiak (Ph. vitulina) wardrobe! The Arctic pelles monopolise them all.” The young are of white, though slightly yellowish tint, and the hair is curly. A favourite haunt of the Floe Rat is the great ice-fjord of Jakobshavn. They resort to the ice-floes in retired bays, seldom frequenting the open sea. Dr. Rink calculates that 51,000 are annually captured in Danish Greenland. On an average, he reckons their weight at about 84 lbs. each. He says this Seal, which is also termed “Utok,” is almost exclusively that captured by means of ice-nets. Two nets are used across the track of the Seals near shore, in certain sounds between 63° and 66° N. lat. One is lowered to the bottom, and over this the animals pass; the other intercepts them, and the former is hauled up, and they are then caught in immense numbers between the two, running their heads into the net-meshes. This ruinous slaughter has in many instances driven the “Utok” Seals from their favourite inlets. The Seals form oblique passages through the ice-crust only large enough to allow their getting up and down; and in the sunny days of May are fond of basking on the ice-heaps close by. Towards this hole, usually termed “atluk,” equally adapted for rising to breathe or diving again, the Eskimo hunter cautiously approaches, or, covering his face with his Sealskin jacket, imitates the actions and manners of a Seal, and creeps towards his prey. In other cases, with a wooden frame, covered by white cotton, he pushes this shooting-sail slowly before him towards the animal. When sufficiently near, he despatches the creature with his gun, though it is necessary to inflict a severe wound in the skull or neck vertebræ, else the Seal quickly rolls down the hole and is lost. At other times, a couple of hunters will keep watch at the margin of an “atluk,” and, while one is on the outlook for the animal’s rising to breathe, the other plants his harpoon in the creature, the rope securing the victim. This method of hunting requires great patience, caution, and dexterity, for the acute sense of hearing keeps the animal always on the qui vive, and on perceiving the least mischievous stir it instantly escapes.

The geographical area of this species is round the southern coast of Greenland, Iceland, onwards to Spitzbergen, and high latitudes of the Arctic Ocean, towards Nova Zembla and the Russian coasts. It is also asserted that either this animal, or a closely-allied and barely-to-be-distinguished species is that which inhabits Lake Baikal, in North Central Asia, and Lake Ladoga, in Finland. On this head there is some discrepancy in the writings of authorities. M. Dybowski regards the Lake Baikal animal as distinct, and names it Phoca baicalensis. Nilsson again avers that the Seal of the Caspian Sea is a distinct species (Phoca caspica). On the other hand, Wallace and Van Beneden take a broader view, with which I am inclined to agree, that one, or more likely both, animals may be regarded as the Ringed Seal (Phoca hispida). It is very plausibly remarked that in former epochs of the world’s history, as is well known, geologists show that a large area of what is now called Russia in Asia was partially submerged, or, at least, the lakes in question were in more direct communication with the Arctic Ocean. The Seals hence, one might say, had their oceanic connection cut off, and thus, on that account slightly modified, remain as evidence of a once different physical condition of the areas concerned.

THE GREENLAND, OR SADDLE-BACK SEAL.--It is this species that forms one of the chief objects of chase both in the Spitzbergen and Newfoundland seas. In habits it agrees with the ordinary Seals though said to be careless and stupid, and easily captured. It feeds on small fish, crustacea, and mollusca. The males and females differ in appearance, and the changes from the younger to older stages are also very remarkable. Indeed, one may say scarcely two animals are alike. These peculiarities have given rise to a great variety of names--White Coats, Harp Seal, Blue Sides, and other common appellations--besides “Atak” of the Greenlanders, and “Karoleek” and “Neitke” of the Eskimo, &c.

It has a wide geographical range, namely, along the North American coast to Davis Strait, round Greenland, the Scandinavian coasts, the Arctic Ocean eastward to Behring Strait, and even to Kamstchatka. According to Rink, though migratory, it may nevertheless be considered at home on the Greenland coast, on account of its haunting the shore and running over the sounds and fjords during the greater part of the year. There it appears regularly along the southern coast in September, travelling in herds from south to north between the islands. They are then fat, but their blubber still increases towards winter. In October and November they are most numerous; in December they decrease, become scarce in January, and almost disappear in February. In May they return from southwards, and get more northerly in June, when they are very lean. The herds again disappear in July, and return in September. Thus the Saddle-back deserts the Greenland coast twice a year. As to their whereabouts during their absence, information is defective. In spring, early in March, and till the beginning of April, it is found in immense numbers in the proximity of the dreary island of Jan Mayen, and in the Spitzbergen waters, in a belt of ice which the sealers term “South-east pack.” To these great broken ice-fields the Seals in vast numbers resort. At such times, as Dr. R. Brown observes, they may be seen, half a million and upwards, of both sexes, “literally covering the frozen waste as far as the eye can reach, with the aid of a telescope, from the crow’s nest.” At this season, the females give birth to their young--one, or occasionally two, in number. Then it is that the sealing-ships bear up towards the pack-ice; and, whenever opportunity permits, after the young are but a few days old, land and commence their slaughter. As the young increase in strength and take to the water the female parents gradually leave them, and join the males, which have already gone north. In July flocks of Seals, termed by Scoresby “Seals’ weddings,” have been seen at times in the parallels of 76° and 77° N. lat. Opinions are at variance respecting the migration from the west coast of Greenland towards Spitzbergen, and eastwards; and Rink, at least, holds that the Seals of Baffin’s Bay go in the spring down the west side of Davis Strait to Newfoundland and Labrador, where vast numbers are annually killed.

At birth the Saddle-backs are pure woolly white, this gradually assuming a yellowish tint when they take to the water a few weeks old. They then begin to change to a dark speckled, and afterwards a spotted hue, and are called “Hares” by the sealers. Next they become dark-bluish on the back, while the breast and belly are of a sombre silvery hue. They are now “blue-backs.” Getting more spotted, the peculiar saddle-shaped band begins to form as they approach maturity. While in the fifth and last stage, the male acquires that well-developed half-moon-shaped mark on each side, the veritable saddle from which this Seal derives its vernacular name. An adult male is five or six feet long, the female seldom as much. The former is tawny-grey, or with a tinge of yellow or even reddish-brown in the spots, and marked by the saddle or lyre-shaped dorsal bands; hence also the cognomen of Harp Seal. The muzzle and head are dark. The adult female is dirty-white or tawny-bluish, or dark-grey on the back, with widely-distributed irregular spotting, but seldom or never shows the saddles.

Rink says a full-grown Saddle-back weighs about 250 lbs., the skin and blubber over, and the flesh under, 100 lbs. The winter blubber may amount to 80 lbs., but in summer little more than a quarter of that. In Danish Greenland alone about 35,000 are captured annually. Its skin forms the useful covering of the “kayaks,” or Eskimo canoes. The above number is, however, not a tithe of the enormous quantities of these creatures that are each year destroyed in the Greenland (i.e., Spitzbergen), and Newfoundland Seal-fisheries. Of this important branch of British commerce it does not behove us to enter into detail, however interesting or appropriate to the subject. Suffice it to say, now chiefly from Dundee, a fleet of ships and powerful steamers built for the trade, proceed, at the end of February and the beginning of March, with a stoppage at the Shetlands to ship hardy seamen, to the pack-ice in the Arctic Sea. Heavy, dark, and dreary weather often awaits the mariners as they coast along the fields of ice. Into the broken-up floes they now and again push their way, and as fortune wills it they may or may not discover from the mast-head a herd in the distance. Occasionally, even during the night, the noise of a family in these dismal regions will be heard, and the ship is soon made fast to the ice hard by, for the Seals during the breeding season frequent such areas of the ice as enable them to have easy access to the water. Then all becomes activity and excitement on board, every man having an interest and share in the expected plunder. The object is, if possible, to approach unperceived, surround, or get between the animals and the water, and, above all, to secure the young, which are more easily killed, and the more lawful prey. The sealers are provided with spiked clubs, sharp knives, seal-guns, and “ruer-ruddies,” or ropes attached by broad belts over their shoulders. Watching their chance the men land in bands, approach cautiously, and commence their dreadful operations. The old Seals abide and guard their young, even endangering their own safety, and will raise themselves up, face, and severely bite the unwary hunter. Crack, crack go the guns, as the older animals endeavour to escape through the holes or towards the water. All and sundry are attacked; a blow of the club, or kick of a heavy sea-boot, despatches the young, while the more aged receive rougher usage ere they succumb. The work of murder goes on apace without stoppage, for once disturbed, no second chance may be allowed the hunter. Told off in batches, some of the men commence the work of skinning, and quickly turn out hide and blubber, throwing aside the (to them) useless carcass, while the skins are heaped in piles. Some collect these, fasten bundles by the rope, and drag them towards the boats, where other sailors are ready to receive them. Thus the murderous operation goes on while there is Seal to be killed, or weather permits the men to remain on the floe, for sometimes the latter will break up, a gale arise, and the poor fellows run even other untold risks. As for the personal appearance of the sealers, as they labour at the work of slaughter, they look the most ruffianly set of men in existence. They are dressed in the queerest caps and coats of various shapes, with smuggler-looking breeches and long boots; moustaches and beards are covered with a mass of frozen tobacco-juice, hoar-frost, and Seal’s blood. Their matted hair, gory, greasy, unwashed faces and hands, reek and smell with a strong taint of butchery. In truth, a spectator, seeing the lot, might almost fancy himself back amongst some of the old bloodthirsty pirates of the Spanish Main. However, they work very hard for their hire. The hides are dropped pell-mell into the hold, and as soon as suiting time arrives, the blubber is sliced off, the skins roughly salted, and in this condition the material is retained for the few weeks until their voyage leads the “fishers” home again. Arrived at Dundee, the cargo is quickly landed, weighed, and the materials placed in the hands of the skinner. The fat is cut up by a variety of cutters driven by steam, and then steamed to facilitate the rendering of the oil. The greater part of the oil thus obtained is tasteless, inodorous, and pure as water. The remaining blubber, after the first oil is taken off, is placed in bags and pressed, and from these pressings most of the brown and inferior quality of oil is had. The former is by far the more valuable. Seal-oil has, of course, varied considerably in price during this century, in 1876-7 averaging £32 a ton, the inferior sort less in proportion. With regard to the skins, these, after being soaked, and the salt got rid of, pass through the usual tanning processes. Relative absence of under-fur gives value only to the leather. Roughly speaking, they fetch five to six shillings apiece.

THE BEARDED SEAL.--About this animal there seems to be a certain amount of ambiguity, or want of agreement among naturalists, whether more than one species be not included under the Ph. barbata of Fabricius. This missionary refers to the “Ursuk,” the big, fat, or great Seal of the Greenlanders. The Russian naturalists Steller, Pallas, and Middendorf, speak of a Seal by different appellations, but most evidently this animal, as inhabiting the neighbourhood of Behring Strait and Kamstchatka. Schrenck and Temminck refer to it as being found, the former on the coast of Amoor land; the latter in Japan, where its skin is sold as an article of commerce. The Leporine Seal of Pennant may be regarded as still another synonym of the same creature. If such be the case, this great Bearded Seal has a geographical range from the west of Greenland to the Sea of Japan, an area somewhat corresponding to that of the Saddle-back, though less spread in the North Atlantic. Rink alludes to it as the “Thong Seal,” the Eskimo cutting the skin circularly into a long strip, which “allunak,” or hide rope, they use for harpoon lines. About 1,000 are captured annually on the Greenland coast. Dr. R. Brown regards it as the “Ground Seal” of the Spitzbergen sealers, and says that the blubber is most delicate in taste, and most highly prized as a culinary dainty. Unlike the other Seals, it has no “atluk,” but depends on broken places in the ice. It is generally found among loose ice and breaking-up floes. Its great size, occasionally ten feet long, and bulky body in proportion, is its important feature. It is of a tawny colour, darker above, and the young is supposed to be of a lighter hue.

THE GREY SEAL.--Its range is a limited one compared with that of the last. It frequents the British coasts, especially Ireland and the Hebrides, and from the Scandinavian coast it stretches towards and round the southern shore of Greenland. It also is of enormous size. One old male, shot in 1869, at the Eagle Rock, Connemara, Mr. A. G. More states, weighed nearly 400 lbs., was eight feet long, and had a girth of body over five feet. Its colour is yellowish-grey, lighter beneath, with varied dark grey spots and blotches. Fabricius first described it, and the Swede Professor Nilsson ranked it as a separate genus, the distinguishing characters depending on the form of its skull and molar teeth, small brain-case, and large nasal orifice, the muzzle being deep and obliquely truncated. To Mr. Ball, of Dublin, we are indebted for a tolerably good account of its habits and other particulars, he having shown it to be the same as Donovan’s Orkney Seal, the so-called Ph. barbata. In bringing the matter before the British Association in 1836, Professor Nilsson recognised it as his H. griseus, the same animal described by Fabricius in 1790. On the British coasts it breeds in October and November, though Nilsson asserts that on the Swedish coasts it breeds in February, a contradiction hitherto not clearly explained. A male and female from Wales were exhibited in the Zoological Gardens in 1871, and Mr. Bartlett particularly noted that it was both greedy and savage as compared with the other Seals under his charge. This accords with Mr. Ball’s account, who found it insusceptible of domestication; this he attributed to its small brain relatively to the other Seals. At the mouth of a cave at Howth he was fortunate in harpooning one. Some state that they are solitary in their habits, others that they associate in pairs, and still others that they congregate in groups of ten or a dozen. At all events, they select such remote and unfrequented situations that it is no very easy matter to follow them. They are not so lively, watchful, or timid as the Common Seal. Those of the county Galway are said to utter most dismal howls in chorus. Their young they leave on the exposed barren rocks, and suckle them every tide for the space of a fortnight. When born, they are of a dull yellowish-white, in a few weeks becoming darker, and by degrees gaining their greyish coat. Under the name of Black Seal, probably this species, an animal (besides the Common Seal) occasionally frequents the Bay of St. Andrews and the Tay mouth, where it is very destructive to fish and nets.

THE MONK SEAL.--Who has not heard or seen something of the “wonderful learned talking fish,” if only from placard or fanciful sketch hung outside the showman’s caravan, with the occasional attractive announcement that “the amphibious creature has the sense of hearing in its nostrils, and fins bearing the impression of five fingers?” A visit soon dispels the illusion, as the imploring look of a hungry but bright-eyed Seal in a tub of water greets the sight. These “talking fish” generally belong to this species, and have often been exhibited in Britain and on the Continent. A full-grown animal reaches between seven and eight feet long, and upwards. It is dark-brown mixed with grey above, and whitish below, and has short hair and small claws. It entirely differs from all the preceding in being confined to the Mediterranean and Black Seas, and the African coasts neighbouring Madeira and the Canaries. Buffon’s classic description of the White-bellied Seal refers to this species, and Pennant names it the Pied Seal. Its geographical limits are as above stated, unless it be the same as a Seal from Jamaica, which Gray terms M. tropicalis, in which case it would traverse the Atlantic, a fact that is more than doubtful. Their mild disposition and teachable nature have led to their frequent exhibition. They go through many tricks, utter sounds construed into speech, present the fore-paw to “shake hands,” kiss the visitor when desired, obey other trifling commands, and allow themselves to be freely handled. Little is known as to its times of breeding and rearing of young, though its habits in a state of nature are believed to be very similar to those of the Seal tribe generally.

THE CRESTED, OR BLADDER-NOSE SEAL.--The geographical range of this animal agrees best with that of the Common Seal, that is, it sweeps along the North American coast from Florida right up into Baffin’s Bay, thence to the south coasts of Greenland, across the North Atlantic, skirting Britain and Scandinavia, to Spitzbergen. Named from the remarkable prominence of the front upper-part of the head, this is one of the largest and most powerful of the Northern Seals. Certainly it is the fiercest and most dangerous, as the Eskimo know to their cost in attacking it from their kayaks. It does not hesitate to return an assault, and the crest, it is said, affords some protection from wounds inflicted by the club. These brutes fight ferociously among themselves, and the roaring during such ice-battles, in the still Arctic regions, is said to be audible four miles off. The so-called crest, hood, or bladder, is in reality nothing of the sort, but only a peculiar enlargement of the nasal passages, more particularly developed in the old animals of both sexes. The configuration of the head of this creature is hemispherical, and proportionally broad and short. The bony parts of the snout, and the cartilaginous septum of the nose and nostrils generally, are so formed as to allow great dilatation of these parts. That is to say, the two passages of the nostrils are, in the full-grown animal, exceedingly capacious fleshy tunnels. From youth onwards, this region acquires prominence, and, partly through habit and growth of the structures in later life, the animal when roused inflates, by compression of the muscles of upper-lip and nose, the cavities in question, so much so as to produce the expansion on the forehead which has given rise to its specific soubriquet. All engravings, even our own, represent this structure as reaching farther back on the head than the absolute anatomical conformation of the parts warrants, but in the live animal the skin of the head rearwards to some extent swells in unison with the puffed nostril, and hence to a certain degree simulates a hood or crest. Some sealers regard the so-called bladder as an air reservoir for buoyancy, an idea totally at variance with its true nature. The teeth of this genus are peculiar, the incisors being fewer in number. The formula is--Incisors, (2-2)/(1-1); canines, (1-1)/(1-1); premolars, (4-4)/(4-4); molars, (1-1)/(1-1) = 30. From eight to twelve feet in length has been given as the limits of size it obtains. The young are pure white; when a year old they become greyish, and the hue deepens, becoming deep chestnut and black above, though the lighter shade is retained on the under parts; chiefly on the back are black spots and rings of white. The muzzle is hairy, and the hair on the rest of the body long, with thick soft under-wool. It visits Greenland in May and June, leaves in July, and again returns in August and September. Fabricius states that they are polygamous. This animal is one which the sealers hunt, it frequenting the outside of the ice-packs. Rink estimates the average annual catch in Greenland at 3,000. An individual will yield 120 lbs. of blubber, and as much as 200 lbs. of flesh.

THE ELEPHANT SEAL.--This creature, like the last, has a peculiar geographical range, but is unique, inasmuch as it is found north and south of the equator. It should, however, be stated that Dr. Gill has designated the northern form by a separate name (Macrorhinus angustirostris), though the distinctive characters have as yet not been substantiated by other naturalists. Meantime, we may be justified in regarding them as one form. It existed formerly in numbers on the Californian coast. But it is best known as frequenting, during the beginning of this century, such islands as Juan Fernandez, the Falklands, New Georgia, South Shetlands, Tristan d’Acunha, Kerguelen’s Land, and, indeed, several of the islands scattered in the Antarctic Ocean. In the young and females, the characteristic feature, or so-called proboscis, is deficient, but in the old males it extends quite a foot beyond the angle of the mouth, and hence the name of Elephant Seal. The females are nine or ten feet, the males fourteen, sixteen, and even twenty feet in length. The colour varies with age from brown to leaden-grey. It seems that they bring forth their young at different seasons in the southern and northern latitudes, in the latter about May or June, in the former somewhat earlier. Accounts differ as to its food, some saying cuttle-fish and seaweed are its principal nutriment.

Lord Anson, Captain Cook, and M. Péron, each give accounts respecting its extraordinary abundance in southern regions, but their numbers have since been decimated. Captain Scammon describes them as crawling out of the surf towards the ravines half a mile distant from the water, where they congregated in hundreds. Unless when excited, their movement on land is slower than that of the ordinary Seals, but they ascend broken elevated ground fifty or sixty feet above the sea. He says that when sailors are destitute of tobacco-pipes, they hollow its short canine teeth into bowls and use the quills of the Pelican for shanks. Their hunting in Desolation and Herd’s Islands is a most exposed and solitary pursuit. The ship is manned with a double crew, and some of the men are landed on the dangerous, ever-stormy coasts of these islands. Food and necessaries are provided, and rude shanties erected of rough boards, tarred canvas, and pieces of lava-rock. In this dank habitation, planted between an iceberg on the one side and a bluff volcanic mountain on the other, they are left to hunt as best they can, in a climate windy, rainy, cold, and often snowy. Nevertheless, undergoing hardships and privations of no common kind, excitement and prospect of gain compensate for their fatigues and temporary banishment. By the flickerings of a murky oil lamp, and fat and coal diffusing heat, these reckless adventurers pass the long, dreary, cold, evenings in card-playing and boisterous fun. Sea Elephants’ tongues and water-fowl are gladly intermingled with coarser fare. The men divide themselves into groups, and scour the coast in all directions, killing such numbers as fall in their way. They either transport the blubber and skins to their stores, or bury it for a time until opportunity of its removal is afforded. Afterwards it is placed in casks, and these are rolled by the gangs to the beach, when their vessel arrives. The casks are then launched into the surf, pulled through the rollers by the boats to the ship, where they are duly stowed. In the Californian district, the skin of the animal is ripped up along the back and reflected; the blubber is cut into “horse pieces,” about a foot square, and a hole made through which a rope is passed. The pieces are again strung on a raft-rope, a line is made fast to this, when they are dragged through the breakers to the small boat, and towed to the vessel. On board, large pots set in a brick furnace are ready prepared, where the blubber is rendered, the oil extracted being very superior for lubricating purposes. In these voyages the crews, unlike the Dundee fishers, hunt both Seals and Whales at the same time, the Americans having quite a monopoly of this special trade.

ROSS’S LARGE-EYED SEAL.--In the voyage of the Erebus and Terror to the Antarctic regions, 1839-43, there was obtained a Seal named after the commander of the Expedition. Little or nothing is recorded of its special habitat and habits, the main peculiarities resting in its skeleton. The stuffed skin, now in the British Museum, is of a greenish-yellow colour, with close, oblique, yellow stripes on the side, pale beneath, and the fur is close-set and rigid. The skull is broad, with great orbits. This genus has six molar teeth on each side of the upper and five on each side of the lower jaw. The canines are of very moderate dimensions, and the teeth, as a whole, are relatively small. Its specific name is derived from its great eyes.

THE SEA LEOPARD.--Under the names Sea Leopard and Leopard Seal, indiscriminately used by the sailors or Southern sealers, two animals, apparently distinct, have evidently been confounded by them as well as by naturalists. Indeed, another seemingly totally different animal of the North Pacific has also been named Leopard Seal by Scammon. That to which the title Sea Leopard appears most applicable is what De Blainville and others called the Small-nailed Seal (Phoca leptonyx), and F. Cuvier the Narrow-muzzled Seal (Stenorhynchus leptonyx). Its precise distribution is uncertain, but it has been found on the coasts of Australia, New Zealand, Falkland, Campbell, Auckland, and Lord Howe’s Islands, and the Antarctic Ocean (on pack-ice). It may possibly be met with elsewhere, but the foregoing are authenticated localities. Mr. A. W. Scott describes male and female stuffed specimens in the Sydney Museum. The old male measures twelve feet in length; the glossy spotted skin is of a light silvery grey, with pale yellowish-white in patches, brought into relief by black-grey shading; its back and sides are darker, and belly lighter. The younger but adult female is seven feet long. Her colour above is darkish-grey, almost black in the middle line, intermixed by narrow markings of darker hue, and of yellowish-white, and the under parts without spots and also yellowish-white. A specimen kept alive for several days at Port Jackson had a long muzzle, a long thin neck, and in its habits generally it resembled the Seal tribe. Dr. George Bennett killed a male in Shoalhaven River (August, 1859), several miles above salt-water reach, which had a water-mole in its stomach. Dr. Knox states that those he examined in New Zealand contained in their stomachs fish-bones, gulls’ feathers, and seaweeds. Captain Musgrave, in his forced residence on the Aucklands, already referred to, alludes to this animal as the Black Seal, and describes a fight between one and a Sea Lion (Otaria); the flesh, he says, is rank. So far as his observations go, they remain at these islands pretty nearly all the year round, but others think that they occasionally migrate, or, at least, at certain seasons less frequently approach the land. The skull is remarkably elongated; the double-rooted molar teeth are compressed and serrate, or have a three-lobed crown, the middle being the longest. This animal has but four incisors above and four below, and the canines are of moderate dimensions. The nails on the hind feet are almost absent.

WEDDELL’S SEAL.--A couple of stuffed specimens and a few skulls of this Seal in the British Museum, and a stuffed specimen in Edinburgh, are the sole material on which this species is founded. Dr. R. Hamilton, in the “Naturalist’s Library,” described the latter as the Leopard Seal (Phoca leopardina, Jameson). Captain Weddell had brought it from the Southern Orkneys, and, according to him, during life the animal is pale greyish above, yellowish beneath, and the back spotted with pale white. Dr. Gray mentions the London male specimen as fulvous, with a blackish-grey line down the back, the female and young corresponding to Captain Weddell’s description. The distinction between this and the last species is barely appreciable from their external coat, such differences as exist being in the skull. Weddell’s Seal, or, as Gray names it, the False Sea Leopard (Leptonyx Weddellii), has a relatively shorter and broader skull, fuller in the brain-pan, largish orbits, and a weak lower jaw. The molars are not tri-cusped; the front one in each jaw is single-rooted, and the rest double-rooted. The Antarctic Expedition brought home skulls, and skins and skulls were afterwards obtained by Captain Fitzroy, R.N., from the River Santa Cruz, Patagonia. Neither they nor Weddell give us any information respecting the life-habits of this animal. It will thus be seen that its geographical area, and especially its geographical relations towards the previous species, are at present uncertain. On account of the peculiarities of cranium and dentition, Gray forms it into a separate genus.

THE CRAB-EATING SEAL, OR SAW-TOOTH STERRINCK OF OWEN.--The interest in this creature lies probably not so much in the nature of its food as in the greater saw-like character of its molars, which strongly resemble those of the fossil Zeuglodon, an animal of the Whale tribe. The Crab-eating Seal inhabits an undefined area of the Antarctic Seas. Above it is of a nearly uniform olive colour, below and the sides of the face yellowish-white, and there are a few often confluent spots of a light colour on the flanks. The five-toed fore feet, whose wrist is said to be very short, are clawed, but the hind ones are clawless. In number, the teeth agree with the Sea Leopard’s; though the first, second, and third front upper and the first front lower molars are single-rooted, the rest double-rooted. Moreover, nearly all the molar teeth have two or three cusps behind the middle strong conical lobe, while in front there is usually only a single small conical elevation. Thus the hinder border of these molars is considerably more saw-like than in the Sea Leopard. It differs also from the latter both in the lower jaw and upper parts of the cranium, but more particularly in the nasal and facial regions. Little is known with regard to its life-history.

* * * * *

The last three Seals some have considered under three distinct generic names, for reasons already given. If importance be attached to the dentition, this separation is allowable; but on the other hand there are considerable resemblances which others regard as only of specific weight. The generic term Stenorhynchus, first used by F. Cuvier in 1824 for the so-called Sea Leopard, and which has been at times indiscriminately applied by different naturalists to all three animals with multi-serrate crowned teeth, but here partially restricted to the first two, is a name well known and still applicable to one or other. Nevertheless, Lamarck, in 1819, had designated a genus of Crabs Stenorhynchus, universally accepted, and also in current use up to the present time. Some confusion having thus occasionally resulted, Professor Peters drew attention to the awkwardness of the circumstance, and proposed that the term Ogmorhinus should replace Stenorhynchus, as applied to the Seals; Lamarck’s name having priority being retained for the Crabs. This well exemplifies one among the many difficulties and cross-purposes incident to nomenclature, &c., of Natural History, where, in the vast array of names and facts presented, glaring discrepancies will arise, despite the constant revision of those devoted to its study.

* * * * *

Before closing this chapter, there is one subject which I believe deserves mention, however briefly. The enormous slaughter of the Seal tribe is a matter of serious consideration, if only in a mercantile spirit. Among the sealers, neither sex nor age is spared, and therefore at the present wholesale rate of destruction it is easy to foresee early comparative, if not absolute, extinction of the tribe. Nothing can be clearer than the fact that since the Americans in their Alaska territory have adopted the plan of killing a prescribed number annually of the young and male Seals only, in other words, of protecting the breeding females, the Fur Seals have shown no tendency to diminution, but rather an apparent increase. Nature has her limits, and the Seals have other enemies to contend with besides man. Yet the latter, taking advantage of the maternal affections, and with the aid of deadly firearms and the like, in a certain space of time commits more fatal havoc among them than all their other foes combined. Several persons have urged a close-time. The fact is there are great difficulties in the way of this, for even in well-protected British rivers and fisheries generally, Salmon and others of the finny tribe are caught at forbidden times, in spite of Acts of Parliament and other regulations. Who is to watch the sealers in far-off inhospitable climes? Certainly in the Northern sealing-grounds the departure of the ships could be made somewhat later, as has, indeed, to some extent been done, but of course at the risk of a diminished catch. In the long run beneficial results doubtless will follow. But the plan most applicable to both Northern and Southern Seal-capture would be the insistence of the simple rule of sparing the breeding females whenever possible. If our merchants at home would take the matter in hand, and, but for a few years, refuse to receive female skins, the sealers would be practically forced, and in fact find it to their benefit, to look to their interests from a more humane point of view.

JAMES MURIE.

ORDER CETACEA.--WHALES.

Whales--Vulgar Notions--Characteristics External and Internal--Larynx--Tail--Skeleton--Classification--THE TOOTHED WHALES--ZEUGLODONS--SQUALODONS--PHOCODONS--RIVER DOLPHINS--SUSU, OR GANGETIC DOLPHIN--Description--Habits--Teeth--INIA--PONTOPORIA--ZIPHIOID WHALES--CUVIER’S WHALE--VAN BENEDEN’S WHALE--SOWERBY’S WHALE--NEW ZEALAND BERARDIUS--BOTTLEHEAD, OR COMMON BEAKED WHALE--SPERM WHALES, OR CACHALOTS--SPERM WHALE--Description--Range--Fishery--Incidents of the Chase--Habits--Harpooned--Treatment of the Carcass--SHORT-HEADED WHALE, OR SNUB-NOSED CACHALOT--DOLPHINS--CAAING, OR PILOT WHALE--RISSO’S GRAMPUS--COMMON PORPOISE--KILLER WHALE, OR ORCA--Ferocity--TRUE DOLPHINS--COMMON DOLPHIN--BOTTLE-NOSE DOLPHIN--WHITE WHALE--NARWHAL--THE WHALEBONE WHALES--Whalebone--GREENLAND, OR RIGHT WHALE--BISCAY WHALE--JAPAN WHALE--CAPE WHALE--SOUTH PACIFIC WHALE--Description of the Greenland Whale--Their Food and Mode of Feeding--Habits--Hunting--Treatment of Carcass--HUMP-BACKED WHALES--FIN WHALES, OR RORQUALS--SIBBALD’S RORQUAL--SULPHUR-BOTTOM WHALE--COMMON RORQUAL, OR RAZOR-BACK--LESSER RORQUAL--Concluding Remarks.

œ, œsophagus, or gullet; b, bile duct; i, intestine; 1, 1*, 2, 3, 4, represent the various chambers, the arrows denoting the direction food takes in passing onwards.]

(After Leuret and Gratiolet.)]

The Whales form one of the most extraordinary groups of the Mammalia, for they are warm-blooded, air-breathers, and sucklers of their young, and are most strangely adapted for life in a watery element. Oddly enough the term “Fish” is still applied to them by the whalers, though they have nothing in common with these creatures save a certain similitude in shape. The vulgar notion of a Whale is an enormous creature with an extremely capacious mouth, but the fact is that many of the Cetacea are of relatively moderate dimensions, though doubtless, on the other hand, the magnitude of some is perfectly amazing. Thus, in size they are variable as a group, a range of from five or six feet (equal to the stature of man) to seventy or eighty feet giving sufficiently wide limits. With certain exceptions, notwithstanding length, an average-sized Whale by no means conveys to the eye the same idea of vastness, say for instance, as does an Elephant. The reason is that most Cetaceans are of a club shape, the compact cylindrical body and long narrow tapering tail reducing the idea of size. The head is in such continuity with the body that of neck there seems nothing. In some there are upright fleshy back fins; in others these are wanting. The gristly caudal fin is horizontal and not upright or rayed like a fish’s. The body is smooth and devoid of hair. The eye is remarkably small and without eyelashes, and the ear orifice is so diminutive as to seem deficient. The head is either rounded, massive, or has a long snout. There are no hind limbs, and only in the enormous Whalebone Whales have the rudiments of any been found. Small pelvic bones, however, are present, embedded in the flesh at the setting-on of the tail. The fore-limbs, which are ordinarily termed flippers, have the usual bones extremely broadened and flattened; the free part--equivalent to the hand--being encased in a rigid or stiff nailless membrane; and in a few instances the phalanges are exceedingly numerous, producing a long-fingered peculiarity met with in no other Mammal. The two mammæ adjoin the pelvic bones, the nipples being sunk in slits. In one section only, the Mysticete, is the mouth very large. In them great plates of the so-called whalebone, a horny substance, occupy the place of teeth. In another section, the Denticete, with moderate-sized mouth, teeth are present in few or greater numbers. These are implanted in simple sockets without successors--i.e., there is no milk and adult dentition as in the foregoing orders. The tongue cannot be thrust out. The gullet is narrow in some, and wider in others, but the stomach in all is peculiar, and composed of three or more chambers with narrow passages between; in this respect corresponding to that of Sheep and cattle. The intestines are long, glandular, and full of little pouches. There is no gall-bladder. The brain is of considerable calibre, globular, and remarkably convoluted. The heart is distinguished only for great size, and the blood-vessels are exceedingly capacious and numerous. But what is remarkable in the vascular system is a great mass composed of enormous numbers of minute tubes, forming a so-called rete mirabile, like that formerly described in the Lemurs. It is situated within the body along the inside of the spine. This, in the Whales, has been supposed to be a respiratory provision to enable them to remain long submerged; but I have shown elsewhere that its connection with the glands of the lymphatic system may render it functionally subservient to nutrition and purification of the blood. The lungs are large, but the most extraordinary features are the larynx and nasal passages. The nostrils, often a single crescentic aperture, open right on the top of the head, except in the Sperm Whale, and not in front as in all other Mammalia. In some there are small pouches near the orifice or blowhole of uncertain use. In front of the larynx of man we all know there is an elastic lid, the epiglottis, which folds over and protects the passage as food is swallowed. The side cartilages constitute the walls of the organ of voice, and protect the vocal cords. Now, in the comparatively voiceless Whale the cartilages including the epiglottis form a long rigid cylindrical tube which is thrust up the passage at the back of the palate in continuity with the blowhole. It is there held in place by a muscular ring. With the larynx thus retained bolt upright, and the blowhole meanwhile being compressed or closed, the Cetacean is enabled to swallow food under water without the latter entering the lungs. Respiration, “blowing” or “spouting,” takes place at intervals as the animal reaches the surface, and the volume of air thrown up along with surrounding moisture and condensed vapour in some rises in a great jet. The flesh of the body terminates in long cords of tendon running to the tip of the tail. These tendons, like a telegraphic cable, bound together in the smallest compass, are moved by the enormous fleshy masses of the body, and thus their vast force is conveyed to the caudal appendage, whose great power as a propelling agent (and even a destructive one) enables the Whales to be truly roamers of the sea. Save the tail and flippers, the body is covered by a dense layer of fat, the blubber. In the skeleton the neck-bones are often soldered into one or two separate pieces, rigidity being needful in front, while the remaining vertebræ, tapering to exceedingly small bones in the tail, are each separated by thick elastic fibro-cartilaginous cushions, thus giving great flexibility behind. The breast-bone is often in a single flat piece. The skull is greatly modified and by no means uniform throughout the group. Among the Dolphins and others (Delphinidæ) it is strangely distorted, so that the one side does not agree with the other. The upper jaw-bones (maxillæ) and the pair of bones above and between them (premaxillæ) are unusually produced, and this production in front, with corresponding extension of lower jaw, gives a lengthened facial region and snout accordingly. The bones surrounding the occiput and brain-pan are directed upwards, the former occasionally forming a great horseshoe crest. The bony nasal passages instead of coming forward lead nearly direct upwards towards the summit of the cranium, nasal bones themselves being all but absent. The orbits are often small and open behind. Curiously enough, though deficient in ears, the interior tiny ear-bones of other Mammals are in the Whales great massive structures and exceedingly dense, so much so that they are frequently preserved fossil when other osseous structures are destroyed.

Ep, epiglottis; vc, vocal cord; s, sac; c, cartilage; gl, gland; tr, trachea. The arrows show direction of air-currents in ingress and egress.]

s, Spermaceti Cavity; n, Nasal Passage, in dotted line; b, Blowhole.]

Cetacea have been a troublesome group to unravel, being ocean-dwellers, and many of them huge brutes. To study them in the live state has been difficult, and their carcases when captured or stranded on shore are as unmanageable for purposes of examination. As to their classification the two sub-orders--Denticete, Toothed Whales, and Mysticete, Whalebone Whales--are universally accepted. As regards the families, the main groups are tolerably well agreed upon, though differently named by authorities. Among the sub-families, the genera and the species, there is less unanimity. The grouping of the living forms proposed by Professor Flower is in Great Britain more frequently adopted, while MM. Gervais and Van Beneden, in their great work on “Osteographie des Cétacés,” have collated the living and fossil forms. Some species and genera of Whales are restricted within given areas, as are the Seals, but of the habitat of many others in truth so little is known that no defined limit can be assigned. The great majority are migratory; some are gregarious, others more solitary in disposition. A few are quite fluviatile; but most are found in the high seas. Following the above primary divisions, we give precedence to

THE TOOTHED WHALES (DENTICETE).

Except the possession of teeth, no other available common character need here be given.

THE SEAL-TOOTHED WHALES (PHOCODONTIA OR ZEUGLODONTIA).

We begin with these, as they are supposed by some authorities to be intermediate between the Seals and Whales. This extinct family, judging from the various mutilated remains found, comprised several different genera. The most notable of these are Zeuglodon, Squalodon, and Phocodon. The ZEUGLODONS may have attained a length of fifty or sixty feet. Their vertebral column was cetacean in character, but the neck-bones were separate, though considerably flattened from before backwards. Some assert that their skull bore resemblances to that of the Seals in several respects. Their brain-cavity undoubtedly was remarkably small, and relatively less than that of known Whales; but the supposed Seal-like skull structure is open to question. The teeth were of two kinds: those in front being conical, pointed, and lengthened; and those behind laterally compressed, serrate, and double-rooted. The dental formula is stated to have been--Incisors, (3-3)/(3-3); canines, (1-1)/(1-1); molars, (5-5)/(5-5) = 36. Hind limbs may have been absent, but the fore limbs suggest rather than furnish precise data showing approximation to the Seals. The SQUALODONS are known chiefly from the skull, which, as a whole, has strong resemblances to those of the curious Amazon Dolphins, called Inia and Pontoporia, but the dentition, however, agrees rather with that of the Dolphin of the Ganges, Platanista. They possessed a long, narrow snout, but no special crest on the summit of the head, and the blow-holes were situate as in the foregoing three last-mentioned living genera. Van Beneden has given the following formula of the dentition:--Incisors, (3-3)/(3-3); canines, (1-1)/(1-1); molars, (11-11)/(11-11) = 60. Their teeth in most respects resembled those of the Zeuglodons. Much less is known of the PHOCODONS, our information regarding them being chiefly derived from the teeth. These latter were not unlike the rearmost of those of the Zeuglodons and Squalodons. The Zeuglodons have been found in the Eocene and Miocene strata of North America. The first remains from Alabama were considered by Dr. Harlan to be those of an enormous reptile (Basilosaurus), but Professor Owen proved their Mammalian character from the teeth being implanted in distinct sockets. The Squalodons and the Phocodons have not only been found in the United States, but in Australia, and in France, Belgium, Austria, Italy, and England. Of course nothing is known respecting their habits other than what may be legitimately inferred from their skeletal peculiarities. To all intents and purposes, so far as we know, the balance lies in favour of their having had the habits of Whales. They may have been river-frequenters, and judging from the dentition their food would be similar to that of the Ganges and Amazon Dolphins.

THE RIVER DOLPHINS (PLATANISTIDÆ).

Three living forms come under this heading, which, however, barely present such characters in common as to render them a compact group; and some authorities even incline to regard them as representative of sub-families. As in the Seal-toothed Whales their neck vertebra are separate.

THE SUSU, OR GANGETIC DOLPHIN.--This remarkable Cetacean is never found in the salt water, or at best only in the brackish water of the Sunderbunds; its habitat being the rivers Ganges and Indus from their mouths upwards, and their various tributaries almost to the mountain ranges in the north. Specimens have been got at least 1,000 miles beyond Calcutta. It measures from six to twelve feet in length, and in colour is entirely sooty black. Its long body has a moderate girth, and just behind the middle of the back there is a slight elevation which can barely be called a fin. The tail is broadish; the flippers are short, very broad, fan-shaped, and not pointed as in most Whales. The head is globular, with a long, narrow, spoon-shaped snout. The opening of the blow-hole, unlike that of other Whales, excepting the Inia, is not transverse, but a single longitudinal slit. The eye externally, situated above the angle of the mouth, is so diminutive as barely to be visible. We may compare the Susu to the Mole in this respect, for in an adult eight feet long the whole of the eyeball is no bigger than a pea in size. Small though this eye is, nevertheless it is perfect in lens and humours, &c. The ear-orifice behind the latter may be compared to a pin-hole. The narrow rostrum of the upper and of the lower jaw is implanted with a series of teeth, more pointed and conical in front, and narrower and laterally flattened in those behind. In the young animal the difference between the anterior and the posterior teeth is exceedingly marked in size, the former being very long, the latter very short, while as age advances quite the reverse is the case. The back teeth also wear down very considerably in the crown, and increase in breadth in root-substance; indeed, as Dr. J. Anderson has shown, the true dental material is worn away, and finally nothing but bone is left. The head of the male is about two-thirds the length of that of the female, and in both its point is slightly upturned. The apparently rounded skull behind the snout has broad thick zygomatic arches, and above and in front of these the cheek-bones (maxillæ) each send forwards and inwards a great roughened sheet of bone or crest, which forms a kind of open helmet. In the large hollow between these bony plates, and somewhat behind, are situated the nasal orifices, which are slightly awry.

The Susu frequents the deep reaches and creeks of the river, occasionally coming to the surface to blow, and although often heard are but seldom captured. Ordinarily their movements are slow, but at times they seem exceedingly active. Their food is chiefly fish, shrimps, &c., which they grovel for among the mud, something like Pigs wallowing in the mire. Grass, rice, and shells have been found in their stomachs, but Dr. Anderson has clearly shown that they are not vegetable feeders, for in the rainy season, when great tracts of land are under water, these animals pursue the fish right into the submerged “paddy-fields,” and the grass is thus most probably swallowed with their prey. The Hindoos have religious superstitions concerning the Susu. It certainly is one of the oldest known Cetaceans, since Pliny and Ælian both allude to it. It has been supposed that the kind which inhabits the Indus was a separate species, but this error has doubtless arisen from the great difference in size of the skulls of the two sexes. This animal must be all but blind, the optic nerve being no thicker than a thread; but the fact of its living habitually in muddy water renders sight less necessary than it otherwise might be. Its peculiar dentition, so like that of the ancient Squalodons in many respects, is of exceeding interest. The following is the dental formula of one specimen, (27-28)/(30-32) = 117. The broad roots of the rearmost teeth are usually grooved, and this gives them a deceptive appearance of possessing more than one fang; moreover, differing as the teeth do front and rearwards, still distinctions as to incisors, canines, and molars can hardly be said to exist.

THE INIA, OR AMAZON DOLPHIN, is another of the remarkable fresh-water forms. The former name is that given to it by the Indian tribes of Bolivia. It ranges from the mouth of the river up the whole of its affluents of any magnitude, 2,000 miles from the sea. Mr. Bates, in his “Journey on the Amazon,” tells us that when it rises the top of the head is the part first seen; it then blows and immediately afterwards dips head downwards, its back curving over, exposing successively the whole dorsal ridge with its fin. It seems thus to pitch heels over head, but does not show the tail fin. It generally goes in pairs. Exceedingly numerous throughout the Amazons, it is nowhere more plentiful than in the shoaly water at the mouth of the Tocantins, especially in the dry season. The Indians have a story that the “Bouto,” as they also call this creature, “once had the habit of assuming the shape of a beautiful woman, with hair hanging loose to her heels, and walking ashore at nights in the streets of Ega, to entice the young men down to the water. If any one was so much smitten as to follow her to the water-side, she grasped her victim round the waist and plunged beneath the waves with a triumphant cry.” It is held in veneration, and on this account the Indians can hardly be induced to harpoon it. They have a superstition that blindness results from the use of its oil (which nevertheless is excellent for lamps), and though Mr. Bates prevailed upon an Indian to capture one, the fellow repented of his deed the day afterwards, declaring that his luck had there and then forsaken him. This animal is seven or eight feet long. Its colour commonly is bluish above, passing into a pale flesh-colour beneath, the tail and flippers being bluish, but the tints vary considerably, and even differ with age and season. The head is furnished with a long beak. There is a kind of keel-shaped dorsal fin, and the flippers are of fair size, broadish and tapering, thus differing from those of the Susu. The skull has a certain resemblance to that of the Gangetic Dolphin, but without the great cheek-crests peculiar to the latter, besides other minor differences. In both jaws there is a long series of stout conical teeth of a pretty uniform size. These vary in number in different specimens, as the following formulæ in two separate individuals show (26-26)/(25-27) = 104; (34-32)/(33-32) = 131. The muzzle of the young is hairy; while both the eye and the ear-hole are much better marked than in the Susu. It is a fish-eater, and the mother exhibits great affection and devotedness towards her young.

THE PONTOPORIA.--Like Inia this is a South American form, and is now known to inhabit the mouth of the La Plata and other rivers entering into the Atlantic on the coasts of the Argentine Republic and Patagonia. But, unlike the two preceding forms, it is not confined to the rivers, for it ranges along the sea-coast. The very few specimens met with show it to be a small animal, not more than four feet long, of a blackish tint, pale beneath, with a white streak along each side from behind the blow-hole. It has an unusually long narrow beak, but not such a prominent head as in the two others. This animal has a well-marked triangular dorsal fin, and the fore-flipper is somewhat fan-shaped and broadish, and not pointed as in the Inia. The crestless skull has characters intermediate between the river Dolphins and the marine Dolphins to be described farther on. The teeth are small and very numerous, somewhat fewer in the young animal, conical in shape, with a swollen ring round their base. The dental formula is as follows:--(53-53)/(53-53) = 212 or (57-57)/(54-54) = 222.

THE ZIPHIOID WHALES (ZIPHIIDÆ).

These singular Whales form a very compact group, closely united by common attributes, but they are readily separated by definite characters from others. Until the beginning of the present century, the Bottlehead (or Butzkopf) was that only known. Since then, at irregular intervals, chiefly solitary individuals have been caught or stranded in various parts of the world; but even now the numbers coming under observation have been few. Their apparent comparative rarity in the present day is in great contrast with the frequent discovery of their remains in the Norfolk Crag formations, where fragments, principally of their dense solid beaks, show that they must have been at a long distant period exceedingly numerous. On these grounds the supposition has been expressed that the present paucity of forms is indicative of a survival of an ancient family that once played an important part in Nature. The living forms range from fifteen to thirty feet in length, but their ocean habits are extremely obscure. Their common characters are long narrow beaks, elevated heads, a small but well-marked dorsal fin placed behind the middle of the back, short flippers with rounded extremity, a pair of short throat-furrows of a V-shape (point in front), a single somewhat crescentic blow-hole, placed crosswise in the middle of the head, absence or only rudiments of teeth in the upper jaws, and one or two pairs of very peculiar teeth, variable in size, in the lower jaws, along with certain other peculiarities of the skull. We shall refer but to a few of the group.

Of the genus Ziphius we may admit CUVIER’S WHALE and VAN BENEDEN’S WHALE. Their size appears to vary from sixteen to twenty-four feet, and their colour is said to be steel-grey, with irregular white body streaks, the abdomen also being whitish. The head is less prominent than in the Bottlehead, and the snout is a trifle shorter, with the lower jaw slightly upturned, fuller than the upper, and furnished with two teeth at the tip. The flippers are short and somewhat pointed, and the dorsal fin is situated well behind, and not very large. There is a deep hollow at the base of the rostrum or beak, over which the skull rises crest-like from behind forwards. The genus Ziphius was originally based on a supposed fossil skull from near the mouth of the Rhone; living species, however, have been since recorded, and of one from South America Burmeister gives a detailed notice under the name of Epiodon australis; still it is doubtful whether this is not one of the two above-mentioned animals.

SOWERBY’S WHALE is representative of the genus Mesoplodon. This animal is black above, white below, and the sides marked with wriggly white streaks. The small dorsal fin is situated well back, the flippers are small and narrow, the head is rather low, sloping towards the beak, and the upper jaw is shorter than the under. It also has two teeth in the lower, and none in the upper jaw. Thus externally it bears strong resemblance to Cuvier’s Whale, but it differs in the slender beak, without a hollow at its base. Sowerby’s Whale is interesting from having been first obtained in 1800 off the Elgin Coast, and described by Mr. Sowerby as the Two-toothed Cachalot (Physeter bidens). The genus Mesoplodon has since given rise to considerable discussion, various names being assigned to it. Professor Flower points out that of the various Ziphioid Whales obtained on British coasts, France, the Cape, and New Zealand, described as different genera, &c., he recognises seven species of Mesoplodon, Sowerby’s Whale being the type, and the others differing chiefly in the form of the teeth. Another of this curious family is the NEW ZEALAND BERARDIUS, of which some four specimens only are known to science. Dr. Julius Haast records the capture of one near Canterbury, New Zealand, in 1868, which animal was 30½ feet long, velvety black, with greyish belly. One of the observers who saw the creature alive stated that it protruded its teeth--a remarkable fact if true. In its stomach were found half a bushel of the horny beaks of a species of Octopus. Professor Flower has described its skeleton, and affirms that it is truly ziphioid in character, but on the whole approaches nearer to the true Dolphins; whereas the Bottlehead is modified in the direction of the Sperm Whales. THE BOTTLEHEAD, OR COMMON BEAKED WHALE, is a constant visitor to the coasts of Britain, many instances having been recorded of its capture, and one classical example came under the scalpel of the celebrated anatomist John Hunter. It inhabits the breadth of the North Atlantic, and according to Eschricht very probably spends the summer far north in the Polar Sea, and migrates southwards towards autumn or winter. Dr. R. Brown regards it as rare in the Greenland Seas, three or four, however, being occasionally seen at the mouth of Davis Strait. On the French and Scandinavian coasts small herds have sometimes run ashore. The female gives birth to a single young one in autumn. They feed chiefly on cuttle-fish, but also upon soft-bodied Trepangs (Holothuria). It ranges from twenty to forty feet in length, according to age and sex, and is of a uniform blackish hue, lighter beneath, but not white. The skull is most peculiar in having two crests at the occiput, of most unequal size and figure, and the cheek-bones at the root of the beak raised into a pair of huge elevations. The upper jaw is toothless, and the lower jaw has only two or three small concealed teeth. The neck vertebræ are united; and moreover the stomach is remarkable even among Cetacea for the number of chambers it contains, there being some six or seven divisions.

THE SPERM WHALES, OR CACHALOTS (PHYSETERIDÆ).

This family includes but two forms: the valuable Sperm Whale (Physeter) and the Short-headed Whale (Kogia). They are unlike in many respects, but they agree in having no teeth, or only rudimentary ones in the upper jaw, while the lower jaw is provided with a series of conical teeth. The dorsal fin is small, either hump-like or high and falcate; the flippers are very short, and situated along with the small eye near the angle of the great mouth. The neck vertebræ are fused together. The upper surface of the broad shoe-shaped skull has a large basin-like cavity, wherein in the soft parts the material known as spermaceti is lodged. The blow-hole is single, and in the case of the Sperm Whale is situated quite in front, but is placed farther back in the Kogia. In both, however, it is somewhat of an f-shape obliquely placed, the left extremity being much wider than the right.

THE SPERM WHALE, OR CACHALOT.--Next to the Greenland Whale the Cachalot is by far the most important animal of the Whale tribe in a commercial point of view. A rare interest, moreover, is attached to it from the daring deeds and hair-breadth escapes of the whalers pursuing it, inasmuch as in certain cases it is among the fiercest of the Cetacea. At times it not only attacks boats and their crews in pursuit of it, but there are also well-authenticated instances of ships themselves being assailed and sunk by this powerful monster of the deep. It attains a size varying from forty to seventy feet, the average of old males being about sixty feet, while the females are much smaller. It is black above, lighter on the sides, and silvery-grey on the belly parts. Its head is of enormous proportions, forming nearly half the bulk of the animal. The snout is extraordinarily dilated and terminates abruptly; the upper jaw quite overhangs the lower, and the bones of the latter are united close together for a long distance, and are furnished with from twenty to thirty teeth on each side. As shown in the woodcut, each tooth is conical and slightly curved, hollow at the base, but elsewhere it is dense and solid. When the lower jaw is closed the teeth fit into hollows in the upper lips, in this respect somewhat resembling what takes place in the Crocodile’s mouth; but besides the remarkable lower jaw, the Sperm Whale’s skull rivets attention from the extensive basin-shaped spermaceti reservoir already alluded to. The throat is very large as compared with that of the Greenland Whale. It was believed that there were several species of Cachalot, but only one is now acknowledged, the Kogia really belonging to a different genus. The Sperm Whale is seldom found in inland waters, but is met with in all the oceans, from the Polar to the Antarctic, though it chiefly inhabits the tropical or sub-tropical seas. Among the favourite resorts of the whalers are the coasts of New Guinea and adjacent parts, Australia, New Zealand, and several of the Polynesian islands, the coasts of Peru, Chili, and California, the Japanese and Chinese waters, the Molucca group, and the mouth of the Persian Gulf. Its appearance in the Atlantic has of late years been irregular and seldom, though at one time it was of tolerably frequent occurrence in the South Atlantic and American coasts, and near the Bahamas. Its steady pursuit for a long series of years has greatly thinned its numbers. About 1770 the Americans, and a few years later the British, in small ships of 100 tons and over, established the Sperm Whale Fishery with very moderate success. Before 1780 the British Government issued bounties to encourage the trade, and this led to the sending out of larger vessels, while Mr. Enderby, a London merchant, pushed the fishery into the far-distant shores of the Pacific. The vessels, of much larger tonnage and better manned, were absent for two or three years, and the scenes of the chase, they say, at times almost defied description. Surgeon Beale’s incident, though tolerably well known, is worth notice. On the coast of Japan, in 1832, some three boats pursued a Whale all day long. By a dexterous move the animal was at last lanced, when it spouted blood, suddenly descended about forty fathoms, and as quickly rose and dashed the boat into the air in fragments. The men clung to the oars and broken wood, and, in spite of the vicinity of Sharks and the Whale itself, were saved by the other boats, the crews of which avenged themselves by ultimately killing the Whale. Of fighting Whales there are numbers of stories, that of one old male, familiarly known as “New Zealand Tom,” being still traditionally recounted in the forecastle. In 1804 the Adonis and several other ships simultaneously attacked the fellow, who destroyed some nine boats before breakfast, but in the end was captured, when a host of harpoons were found in its body. There can be no doubt that the Sperm Whale is a migratory animal, though its migrations are by no means clearly understood. It is a gregarious creature, “schools” of a dozen to fifty or sixty being occasionally met with. At other times great fellows are found here and there on lonely pilgrimages, while still at other times a few together will be seen en route to fresh feeding grounds. Adult females, or those with young in their company, evince a strong affection for each other, and when one is killed or sustains injury, parents or companions hover about and even render assistance. The whalers take advantage of this trait, and often kill a number ere the others make off. When, however, a company of young male Whales are found, and one is attacked, little love or interest in each other’s welfare is manifested, every one rushing off helter-skelter in all directions, to the whaler’s chagrin. The old “bulls,” on the other hand, are more sedate and less easily frightened, and unless roused by injury to retaliate on their pursuers are more readily harpooned. The Sperm Whale is easily known from all others, even at a great distance, from the regularity of its blowing and the manner in which it throws up a volume of vapour obliquely forwards. It traverses the ocean surface in a steady methodical manner, at the rate of four or five miles an hour, its great head or hump-like back occasionally appearing above water. It will remain on the surface from ten to fifteen minutes, and then will descend, staying below an hour or more, but the females and young remain up and descend at more frequent intervals. At times, instead of quietly swimming on the surface, they proceed more quickly by a kind of lunging motion, the head being thrust well out of the water, a mass of spray, technically called “white water,” accompanying this mode of progression. Occasionally they spring headlong out of the sea (“breaching”), or violently beat the surface with their tails (“lobtailing”), or at other times dash about in a variety of attitudes. Sometimes they move their fins as if feeling around for enemies, or throw their bodies awry, bringing the mouth well to the surface. It is pretty certain that Cuttle-fish form a large proportion of their food, though there is reason to believe that they do not despise fish and other marine creatures. It is still a moot point how they feed, and to what use they put their teeth. Some assert that in the depths the under jaw is lowered, and the glistening pearly teeth fully shown; attracted by the latter, its prey approach and the trap is closed. Blindness at times supervenes. Still more curious are instances where the lower jaw is twisted like a shepherd’s crook, and strange to say, notwithstanding this deformity, these Whales seem fat and hearty--this fact giving rise to much speculation whether such malformation has arisen from fighting and distortion of the jaw in youth, or from other causes not yet ascertained. The Sperm Whale has its enemies, the Thresher Shark leaping on it and attacking it from above, while the daring Killer Whale (Orca) assaults it from below. The female, it is said, breeds at all seasons, producing one, but occasionally two, at a time.

The double-bowed whale-boats are manned by six men, and when they approach the Whale one steers aft with an oar while the harpooner plies his craft. As soon as it is struck the rowers “back” away. Meanwhile the creature dives, carrying harpoon and line, or rolls rapidly round coiling the rope on its body. The other boats approach, and as it rises harpoons and lances are dexterously used, and as the blood escapes in volumes, despite its vast efforts the creature succumbs. Immediately after its death the boats are made fast to the carcass, and the ship reached as circumstances best permit. Secured alongside, a man descends, cuts a hole behind the head, inserts a hook, often under most dangerous conditions, especially if the sea is rough. The fat or blubber is cut by sharp spades in a long spiral strip, and pulleys applied, and these skin and blubber strips, termed the “blanket pieces,” are thereupon hove on deck. The carcass afterwards is rolled round and the opposite side similarly treated. The great head meantime is cut off, and floated astern until the trunk is deprived of its blubber. The head is then opened from above, and among the coarse fat and blubber of the forehead--the so-called “case”--is a fluid oily matter, the spermaceti. This substance is handed up in bucketfuls, and preserved in casks. On its removal the wedge-shaped oily and fibrous head-piece, the “junk,” is next secured; head and trunk are then sent adrift. Then follows the “trying out,” that is, boiling the fatty masses and extracting the oil, which operation is done in furnaces, the scraps of fat mainly serving as fuel. Finally, the oil and head matter are casked up, and a fresh look-out from the masthead is kept for more Whales. The crow’s nest is a large barrel on the cross-trees, where a watcher is stationed during the whole voyage. No sooner is a Whale spied than the shout, “There she blows!” or, as the Americans have it, “There she spouts!” is replied to from the deck by a hurried rush to the boats, for each seaman’s kit and provisions are beforehand ready prepared in a bundle, and before a few minutes have passed, the hardy mariners are on their way towards their gigantic spoil. Sperm oil, we need hardly say, is exceedingly valuable. The quantity obtained between 1835 and 1872 by the Americans alone is reckoned at 3,671,772 barrels, and the wholesale price has varied during these years from four to ten shillings per gallon.

THE SHORT-HEADED WHALE, OR SNUB-NOSED CACHALOT.--Under this name, and possibly also that of Gray’s Kogia, an animal has been described which, far smaller in size and in many respects differing from the Sperm Whale, nevertheless is more closely allied to it than to any other of the Cetacea. Whether the two names belong to different or the same species may be left open for the present. At all events, specimens have been obtained at the Cape of Good Hope, the East Indies, and Australia, which so closely resemble each other as probably to belong to one and the same species. This animal measures from six to ten feet in length, and is almost Porpoise-like in general appearance. It has a well-marked dorsal fin behind the middle of the body, short flippers, and the snout is said to be turned up with a margin somewhat like a Pig’s. The upper surface of the body is black, and the under parts have a tinge of yellow or light flesh-colour. The few specimens hitherto obtained afford no information regarding its habits. The peculiar construction of its skull, short, broad, distorted, with a bony division in the spermaceti cavity and other skeletal characters, give it an interest as being an intermediate form between the Cachalot and the Dolphins proper.

THE DOLPHINS (DELPHINIDÆ).

This group possesses considerable diversity in outward form, in skeletal characters, and dentition; nay more, many of the genera blend into each other. The Narwhal by its peculiar teeth, and the White Whale by its colour, besides some few other points, stand apart. The Porpoise and the Neomeris agree in teeth and skull; the Killer Whales are distinguished by their broad flippers; the Pilot Whales, on the contrary, by the extreme length and narrowness of their flippers; the Dolphins proper have long narrow beaks and numerous teeth; while several other genera unite characters so that it is difficult to define where one commences and another ends. Nearly all have dorsal fins. Excepting in the Narwhal, numerous teeth exist in both jaws. The lower jaws are united only for a short distance, and there is no distinct skull crest behind the nasal orifice, while the neck vertebræ in most are soldered together. The difficulty in giving the natural sequence, the genera, and species of this group, for reasons aforesaid, leads us to commence with one which has a singular prominence in the forehead, composed of a soft blubbery material intermingled with strong fibres, one might say, a kind of modified spermaceti substance.

THE CAAING, OR PILOT WHALE, OR DEDUCTOR, is one of the best known Whales that frequent the British coasts, herds of hundreds having often been run ashore in the Shetlands, Orkneys, and even in the Firth of Forth. Adults average from sixteen to twenty-five feet in length, are of a jet-black colour, but lighter or whitish on the abdomen. The body is cylindrical, tapering to the tail; the dorsal fin is high, placed at the middle of the back; the flippers are unusually long and narrow, and the fingers possess an unusually great number of bones, as many as fourteen to the second digit. The head is quite characteristic, having the form of a massive boss. The teeth are somewhat numerous, namely, (24-24)/(24-24) = 96. When these Whales are seen gambolling in the bays of the Scottish shores, the hardy fishermen start in their boats and form a cordon seawards. Then by gunshots, shouts, splashings, and throwing stones they drive them towards the shore; and as the animals madly plunge to shallower water, pressing through fear one over the other, the men dash into the water and begin havoc with harpoons, scythes, spears, picks, or spades--indeed, whatever weapon comes handiest. Thus numbers, from even fifty to as many as two hundred, fall an easy prey. Such an encounter took place in 1867 near Prestonpans on the Firth of Forth, when one Whale wounded by harpoons struck seawards, hauling a boat and crew of twelve men nearly as far as Inchkeith ere it succumbed. There may be more than one species of this Whale, widely distributed, but whether or not, their habits and general appearance have much in common.

A rather remarkable form is RISSO’S GRAMPUS, inasmuch as its colouring and marking are so variable, and in some cases so characteristic; indeed, no two specimens yet obtained can be said to be alike. The head is fuller and rounder than that of the Porpoise, and its flippers longer and narrower--in these respects approaching the Pilot Whale. The prevailing tint is grey, darker above, and under parts paler, and in some there are a few indistinct and irregular lighter-coloured bandings. In other examples, notably one obtained by M. Risso in the Mediterranean, and by Professor Flower on the British coast, the side of the body and even top of the head exhibited a mass of intercrossing, wavy, scratched lines and spots of white and grey, following no special pattern. It has been found both on the French and English coasts in spring and summer, but is suspected to be migratory, visiting Europe in summer, and proceeding to the African or possibly the American continent towards winter. The variation in colour has given rise to different specific names. Somewhat intermediate between the foregoing and the Porpoises, are certain forms found on the Indian coasts and even the Irrawaddy River; the genus Orcella, for example, combining the head of the Pilot Whale with the body and flippers of the Porpoise.

THE COMMON PORPOISE, the marsouin of the French or meerschwein of the Germans, is the most familiar Cetacean of the British and adjoining coasts. Their average length is four or five feet, though often more. The colour slightly varies with age and sex, more usually a polished bluish-black tint on the upper parts, merging into a pink or mottled grey or whitish below. The dorsal fin and flippers are both of moderate dimensions. Their head is roundish, and not so blunt or bomb-like as in the Globiceps, nor so sharp-nosed as in the true Dolphin tribe. Its diminutive eye, no visible ear, tapering body, and broad tail are all markedly Cetacean in character, so that, though small, it gives a very good idea of the Whale tribe generally. The semilunar transverse blow-hole as it rises to the surface slightly opens, but in a tank no lofty jet of vapour is thrown up as is the case with the large Whales at sea. In looking into the pink-coloured mouth one sees above and below a row of small equal-sized simple teeth, and a flat tongue which is not protrusible. The dental formula is (20-20)/(20-20) = 80, or (26-26)/(26-26) = 104. In structural detail, both internally and in the skeleton, it is a fair type of the group Delphinidæ. Porpoises either of the common sort or species barely to be distinguished from it have a tolerably wide distribution, being found all over the Mediterranean, Pacific, Atlantic, and Arctic regions. They evidently migrate, as they appear in Davis Strait in the spring, and stop there till November. They are true fish-feeders, and herd in enormous numbers. A prettier sight can scarcely be conceived than a large shoal frolicking, dashing, and springing in all manner of fantastic curves with an amazing rapidity. Woe betide the “schools” of Herrings, Mackerels, and Pilchards that are followed by these rapacious creatures, which cause great havoc among them! They give birth to their young about May. Mr. H. Lee, on Mr. Scott Siddons’ authority, relates that in the surveying voyage of the Herald the natives of Moreton Bay entreated the seamen “not to shoot their tame Porpoises.” These crowded lazily near the shore, and when a shoal of fish entered the bay the people roused the Porpoises, which dashed among the fish, ate some, and drove the rest ashore. Porpoise flesh, though no longer an article of diet, was once held in high estimation, and even graced the royal table as late as the time of “bluff King Hal.” Porpoise meat was generally eaten with a kind of mint sauce, and porpoise pudding was not an unusual dish during Lent as coming under the denomination of supposed fish. “Porpoise leather” now in vogue is in reality the skin of the White Whale.

THE KILLER WHALE, OR ORCA, is truly the terror of the ocean. Not only Porpoises, White Whales, and Seals spring out of the water and run ashore in fear of it, but the great Sperm Whale and the Greenland Whale stand in deadly awe of its attack. It ranges in size from eighteen to thirty feet long, and its fierceness and voracity are unbounded, as is well shown in an example which came under Eschricht’s observation. From the stomach of this individual he took thirteen Porpoises and fourteen Seals, and the atrocious glutton had been choked in the attempt to swallow a fifteenth! Hollböll saw a herd of White Whales driven into a bay in Greenland where they were literally torn to pieces by these voracious Sea-wolves. Scammon says that three or four do not hesitate to grapple with the largest Baleen Whales; the latter, often paralysed through fear, lie helpless and at their mercy. The Killers, like a pack of hounds, cluster about the animal’s head, “breach” over it, seize it by the lips, and haul the bleeding monster under water; and should the victim open its mouth they eat its tongue. In one instance he relates that a Californian Grey Whale and her young were assaulted; the Orcas killed the latter, and sprang on the mother, tearing away large pieces of flesh which they greedily devoured. These brutes have been known to attack a white-painted herring-boat, mistaking it for a Beluga; and it is stated that occasionally they will boldly lay siege to Whales killed by the whalers, almost dragging them perforce under water. Near some of the Pacific sealing-grounds they continually swim about and swoop off the unwary young; even the large male Sea Lions hastily retreat ashore and give these monsters a wide berth. The Walrus also, with his powerful tusks, cannot keep the Killers at bay, especially if young Morses are in the herd. The cubs on such occasions will mount upon their mother’s back for refuge, clinging for dear life; but the Orca, diving, comes suddenly up with a spiteful thud, and the cub losing its balance falls in the water, when in an instant it is seized by the remorseless Whales. These latter do not restrict themselves in diet solely to their own or the Seal tribe; for Scammon asserts that they even make marauding expeditions up strong-flowing rivers in pursuit of the Salmon and other fishes, a statement corroborated by observers on British coasts. The great swiftness of these creatures is best realised by the fact that they pursue and overtake the quick-swimming Dolphins, literally swallowing them alive. They are not gregarious in the sense of being found in large herds, but follow their prey in small squads. At times they move rapidly near the surface, their great back-fins projecting, or they tumble and roll about, even leaping out of the water and cutting all manner of capers. They have an evenly-rounded head, blunter than the Porpoise’s, the upper jaw a trifle longer than the lower. Their flippers are broad and oval-shaped, and what renders them peculiar and easily recognised is their greatly-lengthened dorsal fin, in some species said to be equal to one-fifth of the whole length of the animal. Though slightly varying in colour, they are usually glossy black above, and white below, the tints sharply defined. Above the eye is a white patch, and occasionally there is a greyish saddle mark on their back. Their capacious mouth is provided with eleven or twelve teeth on each side above and below, and each tooth is most powerful, conical, and slightly recurved.

THE TRUE DOLPHINS, from which in fact the group Delphinidæ takes its origin, are associated in mythology and poetry to a considerable extent. The car of Amphitrite drawn by these oceanic animals is well known. The COMMON DOLPHIN and the BOTTLE-NOSE DOLPHIN of British coasts are kinds familiar to fishermen and sailors, the former evidently being that known to the ancients. Naturalists have recognised many genera and numerous species of the Dolphin tribe, but into these and their distinctions we shall not enter. If we take the common Dolphin as a representative, it will be seen that the head has a well-marked rostrum or beak, and an abruptly-rounded forehead; the dorsal fin is high, and the flippers of moderate size. When adult they average from six to eight feet in length. Their colour is black above and brilliant white beneath; though many of the species of Dolphins are parti-coloured, white predominating. The teeth vary in number from forty to fifty on each side, above and below--that is, from 160 to 200 in all. They feed on fish, medusæ, and crustaceans; and they congregate in great herds, never being seen alone. This species inhabits the North Sea, the Atlantic, and the Mediterranean; but the different genera and species of the Dolphins have a wide range over the seas of the warmer and of the temperate zones; some even ascending rivers after their prey. As a group their habits are considerably alike, and they are all excessively playful and active, and seem to delight in gambolling around vessels,

“Or dive below, or on the surface leap, And spout the waves, and wanton in the deep.”

THE WHITE WHALE, OR BELUGA.--In September, 1877, a White Whale nine feet and a half long, which had been captured on the coast of Labrador, arrived at the Westminster Aquarium. Though not of the largest size--for they attain a length of even sixteen feet--this example nevertheless was characteristic. Symmetrical in form, creamy white in colour, without dorsal fin, with short stumpy flippers, and a bulging-rounded forehead, there could be no mistaking the species. Unfortunately it lived but a few days, though Mr. Barnum was more fortunate in keeping these creatures alive in a tank in his museum at New York. The dental formula of the Beluga is (8-8)/(8-8)=32; or (10-10)/(10-10)=40; the small conical teeth are implanted only in the front of the jaws, and frequently drop out early in life. It is abundant over a wide area of the northern regions, and is very partial to ascending rivers after fish, for a long distance. Dall records one taken 700 miles up the Yukon river, and Nordmann mentions that it ascends the river Amoor. It is well known in the St. Lawrence and Labrador coasts, as also in the White Sea, where there is a regular White Whale fishery; but withal it is truly a Greenland Cetacean, being found there all the year round. Like the Narwhal it is very gregarious, sportive, and migrates in numbers, both sexes associating in the droves. It is fearless and inquisitive, approaching the ship with an easy roll, occasionally emitting a whistling sound; hence seamen call them “sea canaries.” The female gives birth to a young one in the spring months, and this is of a bluish-grey colour, paling with age. Their docility and indeed intelligence, when captured, are well illustrated by one in America, which was trained to draw a car round the tank. It recognised its keeper, and allowed itself to be freely handled. It would play with a Sturgeon and a small Shark as a Cat would with a Mouse, but without injuring them; at other moments it would splash about and toss stones with its mouth. The Greenlanders dry their flesh for winter use, hoard their oil, and capture them by nets at the entrance of the fjords and inlets whenever chance permits. Five hundred or more every year are thus obtained. Dr. Rae says that the Beluga is similarly caught by nets in the St. Lawrence. The Indians also paint their canoes white and sail promiscuously among them, harpooning betimes. Every part of the animal is valuable to the natives of the north, the skin being manufactured into capital leather. A white Porpoise-looking Whale visits Amoy and other southerly harbours of China, but it is a true Dolphin (D. sinensis), and not a Beluga.

THE NARWHAL, OR SEA-UNICORN.--Of all Whales this is the most unique on account of its so-called horn, or rather tusk, or, still better, enormously-developed canine tooth. Most museums contain examples of this extraordinary object, which seems like a solid rod of ivory, tapers from root to tip, has a kind of striated spiral surface, and is often from five to seven feet or more in length, thus being the longest tooth in the Mammalia. The adult animals vary from ten to sixteen feet long, and, like the Beluga, have a blunt short head, no dorsal fin, and very small flippers. It is essentially a northern form, inasmuch as it frequents the coasts of Greenland, Spitzbergen, and Siberia, though occasionally met with off Scandinavia and Britain, its favourite haunts, however, being 70° to 80° N. lat. It travels in great herds, and Dr. R. Brown avers that he saw thousands in their summer migrations following tusk to tusk and tail to tail like a regiment of cavalry, and swimming with perfect, regular, undulating movements. These herds are of both sexes. The Narwhals have grey backs, mottled with black, the sides and belly paling downwards to white, and equally spotted with grey or darker tint. The females are more spotted than the males, the young are darker, but some animals are much paler than others. The crescentic blowhole externally is single. Occasionally they utter a gurgling noise. In the stomachs of captured Narwhals, fish-bones, Crustaceans, Molluscs, and Cuttle-fish remains have been found. They swim with great velocity, and are most active creatures. They dash and sport about apparently with much glee, and Scoresby says that in their playful moments they parry horns as if fencing. He suggests that the horn may be used for spearing fish, as he found a large flat Skate in the stomach of one. Others imagine that it may be for stirring up food from the bottom; but it has been very deftly remarked that the female would thus fare badly, seeing she is destitute of the tooth in question. Fabricius’ view, that it was to keep the ice-holes open during the winter, has a touch of truth in it, inasmuch as one among other instances has been recorded where it usefully supplied such a purpose. Dr. R. Brown mentions that in 1860 a Greenlander observed in a hole in the ice hundreds of Narwhals and White Whales protruding their heads to breathe. It was likened to an Arctic Black Hole of Calcutta, so eager were the creatures pushing towards it. The natives gathered around, harpooned and shot the creatures by the dozen, though many were lost, such was the scramble. The Narwhal possesses only two teeth: the greatly-developed or left canine, and within the jaw on the right side the rudiment of a similar tooth which seldom is protruded; although in certain rare cases, instead of one, the two tusks are developed. Along the jaw or gum there is a scolloped appearance foreshadowing as it were teeth. In the palace of Rosenberg, Dr. R. Brown states, there is a throne manufactured of Narwhal ivory, and Captain Scoresby had a bedstead made of the same substance. A Greenlander’s dainty is Narwhal skin boiled to a jelly, this dish of mattak being a bonne bouche offered to strangers. The oil is very superior, the flesh extremely palatable. Though so peculiar in appearance and dentition, this veritable unicorn in all other structural peculiarities is truly a Dolphin.

THE WHALEBONE WHALES (MYSTICETE).

These are distinguished from the Toothed Whales by their great upper jaws being provided with baleen plates instead of teeth; in early life, however, rudimentary teeth occasionally are present, but these never project beyond the gums. Their skulls are symmetrical and not distorted as in the Denticete. The organ of smell is distinctly developed, and there is a double aperture to the blowhole. The separate bones in the lower jaw arch widely outwards. The upper jaws are relatively narrow and project forward at the same time with a great fore and aft arch, but are encompassed by the lower jaw arches. The head is proportionally of immense size, and admits of an extraordinarily capacious mouth. The palate is but a narrow median line, and the huge mouth little else than an enormous dome of whalebone plates whose inner lower margins are frayed. Thus while the whalebone is longer than the depth of the closed mouth, it nevertheless is accommodated by being tucked in below at its flexible extremities. A great broad massive tongue fills the interspace between the lower jaws. From this peculiar mouth-formation, the bony area of and around the brain-pan is relatively small.

Br, brain cavity; J, J*, upper and lower jaw-bones, bo, bo, being roughened parts of bone sawn through; arrows indicate narial passages, which open at s, spout-hole; w, whalebone; t, tongue in dotted outline; n, nerve aperture lower jaw.]

Most people have seen a large plate of whalebone, dark-tinted or occasionally lighter, and one extremity ending in a fringe of bristle-like hairs. The whalebone blade of dense horny-like material is in the early stage composed of a brush of hair-like bodies, which, lengthening, solidify and assume the hard horny appearance afterwards known in the blade. The gum of the upper jaws has a series of these plates, the one in front of the other, which elongate as growth proceeds, but leave the free extremity with a fringe of separate hairs. Again, the blade towards the gum is embedded in a fleshy substance similar to the roots of our finger-nails. It grows continuously from the roots, like the latter, and in many respects corresponds, save that the free end is always fringed. Baleen, therefore, though varying from a few inches to a number of feet long, in fact approximates to a series of so to say mouth nail-plates, which laminæ have a somewhat transverse position to the cavity of the mouth, and thus their inner split edges and lower free ends cause the mouth to appear as a great hairy archway, shallower in front and deeper behind. The animal in opening its mouth gulps a quantity of water containing its minute marine food, and then closing the mouth the liquid escapes and the small mollusca, &c., are entangled in the hairy meshes. Some of the Whalebone Whales are distinguished as smooth-skinned and as wanting dorsal fins--the family Balænidæ, or Right Whales. Others have either a hump-like protuberance or dorsal fin or a series of longitudinal skin-plaits on the throat--the Balænopteridæ, or Humpbacks, and Rorquals.

THE GREENLAND, OR RIGHT WHALE.--Among the Cetacea this, par excellence, may be denominated the Whale, for much of the popular knowledge, interest, and commercial value of the group has centred in this animal. It is the well-known form followed by the Greenland whalers into the Arctic seas. The stories of its hunting and authenticated accounts of its vast size, &c., associate it in many minds as the most typical of the Whale tribe. But the truth is, it is unusual in many respects, and not even quite representative of the group of Whalebone Whales as a whole. Moreover, it is as well at first to take notice of the fact that of the genus Balæna, that to which the term Greenland or Right Whale is applicable is not the only species. For a long time it was believed that this Whale inhabited a very large area of the oceans. Later data, however, go to show that at least five species have existed or still exist, each restricted within a moderately defined area. B. mysticetus reaches from the Gulf of St. Lawrence up Baffin’s Bay and Smith’s Sound, and westwards by Barrow Strait, &c., to the extremity of the North American continent, and descends to Behring Strait, Kamstchatka, and the Sea of Okhotsk. It moreover passes along the Arctic Ocean from Behring Strait to Spitzbergen and the east of Greenland, that is, it has a circum-polar area, in the two points already named descending to lower latitudes.

(Modified partly after Eschricht, Owen, Turner, and Prichard.)

A, back of skull of Right Whale, looking into mouth, with w, whalebone, m being maxillary bone of palate, J, lower jaw-bones; B, arch of baleen plates, as seen in cross section of mouth; C, vertical section through gum, palatal, or intermediate substance (is) with (b) three baleen plates springing therefrom; D, whalebone in cross section under the microscope and showing hair-like structure.]

THE BISCAY WHALE (B. biscayensis) differs in a proportionally smaller head; shorter, thicker, and more brittle baleen; smoother, thicker skin; and slightly bluish shade of colour. From the eighth to the tenth century the Basque people established a Whale fishery right in the middle of the Atlantic, and even to the beginning of the last century it was known that the same kind of animal was pursued across the Atlantic as far as Florida, and beyond Great Britain towards Iceland. But these hardy seamen followed the Whale with such vigour as to diminish, and, as was believed, drive it within the Arctic circle, an assumption which has disappeared before the knowledge that it differs from the so-called Greenland Whale. Almost between the same parallels in the Pacific Ocean from the American to the Asiatic shores is another--the JAPAN WHALE (B. japonica)--pursued by English, American, and Japanese whalers. This black animal, with a white eye-spot and paler on the chin and belly, has slenderer but equally long baleen, and in certain osteological features is regarded as specifically distinct. Another Whale, the CAPE WHALE (B. australis), ranges from the Cape region across the South Atlantic to the coast of South America below Brazil. While a fifth, the SOUTH PACIFIC WHALE (B. antipodarum), occupies a strip from the South American coast to New Zealand and Australia. The two latter have points in common with the others, and are only distinguished as separate species by supposed structural variations.

The habits of all these animals are exceedingly alike, and only in the first two is there very decided distinction in appearance. Such being the case, we may refer in detail to the Greenland Whale, Bowhead, or great Polar Whale of the Americans. This creature ordinarily attains a length of fifty or sixty or not more than seventy feet. The females are said to be larger and fatter than the males, to produce one or rarely two young ones in the spring, which are suckled for a twelvemonth, and they exhibit a constancy and affection for this offspring not surpassed by any other of the tribe. The bulky body is largest about the middle, tapering rather suddenly towards the tail, the flukes of which are occasionally over twenty feet from tip to tip. The flipper is short and broadish; while the head is a third of the length of the animal. The small eye is placed very low, but nevertheless above the angle of the great arched-mouth. The head is surrounded by a large swelling, at which point the double orifice of the blowhole forms an obtuse angle. The adult is almost black, the young bluish-grey, the lower parts of the throat cream-colour, and occasionally dispersed whitish markings on the body. Gregarious in habit, they go in twos and threes, but sometimes in greater numbers, even in large flocks; but the herds now are indeed rare. Among the most remarkable peculiarities in this Whale are the nature of its food and its mode of feeding. In the high latitudes there floats in immense quantities a small soft-bodied Mollusc (Clio borealis), an inch long, with expansions like wings; and besides it there are numerous small Crustaceans and Jelly-fish of various kinds. These, curiously enough, feed on infinitesimally minute Jelly-specks, Diatomaceæ, &c. These latter thus form subsistence to the former, which in their turn are the Whale’s food; so that, as Dr. Robert Brown has remarked, this enormous marine monster in a secondary manner is sustained by incredible numbers of organisms of which 1,000 or more might be laid on a shilling piece. Captain David Gray, a well-known successful whaler, has given a good account of the mode of feeding. When the animal opens its mouth to feed, the whalebone springs forwards and downwards so as to fill the mouth entirely. When in the act of shutting it again, the whalebone being pointed slightly towards the throat, the lower jaw catches it and carries it up into the hollow of the mouth. They choose a space between two pieces of ice, and swimming backwards and forwards secure the food near the surface. They will continue feeding in this way for hours, afterwards disappearing under the ice to sleep, and again suddenly reappearing as hunger compels them. When the food is submerged ten or fifteen fathoms, after feeding the Whale comes to the surface to breathe, and swallows its mouthful. It then lies still a minute, raises its head partially out of the water, again diving, throwing its tail in the air as it disappears. At such times the whalers successfully harpoon them. Occasionally they are easily captured, but more often are approached with great danger. The periods of surface-breathing and descents in the Right Whale are very different and irregular compared with those of the Sperm Whale. At intervals of from five to fifteen or twenty minutes they rise to breathe, and remain on the surface for about two minutes. Their ordinary rate of travelling is nearly four miles an hour, but if alarmed or wounded their pace is considerably increased. Like the other Whales, they travel head to the wind. They appear to have periods of migration. In May they are found off West Greenland; at the end of June they cross Baffin’s Bay, towards Lancaster Sound and Eclipse Bay, whence in August and September they strike south, and in November or later reach Hudson Strait and the coast of Labrador. It is supposed that the young are produced in these lower latitudes, and in spring the Whales are believed to proceed again northwards. This ordinarily quiet, harmless, but unwieldy creature, whose time seems to be divided between feeding and sleeping, occasionally disports itself in fun and frolic, like its more elegant but smaller congeners. It will then throw itself clean out of the water, “lobtail,” “breach,” and so on.

The whaling ships, which are now most powerfully built screw-propellers, leave Britain in the beginning of May for the Greenland seas, and endeavour to come across the track of their prey in the Baffin’s Bay districts. The men in the crow’s-nest have a weary and cold outlook, and as opportunity offers chase is given in the whaleboat in these dreary regions under circumstances well calculated to test the bravest spirit. The vessels often hover on the edges of the ice, or ram and bore their way through it, and when Whales are announced they are assailed by the boats’ crews with harpoons, lance, and at times harpoon-guns. These Whales when struck will occasionally run out more than a mile of cable, but return to breathe at no great distance, when the lance is used, and the extraordinary loss of blood weakens the monster and lays him at the mercy of his pursuers. Whales that have once been attacked and got free become very cunning, and instead of diving direct go straight along the surface, dragging boats and even ships into most dangerous positions, or cutting the ropes as they seek shelter under the ice. The American whalers on the Okhotsk Sea vary their mode of pursuit according to the district, often landing and even making night whaling expeditions, being guided by the phosphorescence accompanying the creatures’ movements. An ordinary-sized Whale, between forty and fifty feet, will yield, according to Scammon, from sixty to eighty barrels of oil, and 1,000 lbs. of baleen. The usual manner is for the Whale to be brought along the port side of the vessel, its tail forwards, belly up, and head aft. Tackled at each extremity, the men with spiked boots commence to strip the blubber, which is hoisted on deck. When the belly and right side with flipper are disposed of, the carcass is canted and the other side is similarly treated. The material is hastily put aside until the first quiet opportunity admits of it being cut in pieces and finally stowed in the holds, where it is kept in perfect safety until the return of the vessel. The skin and waste pieces of flesh or “kreng” are thrown away, and as the carcass and such useless matter are abandoned, they are quickly seized by the Killer Whales, Threshers, and Greenland Sharks, and by enormous numbers of sea-fowl that hover in the wake of the whaler.

THE HUMP-BACKED WHALES.--Of this genus three, four, or even more species are named by naturalists. The Long-finned (M. longimana), or Kepokak of the Greenlanders, inhabits the North Atlantic area as far as Davis Strait. A southern form, the Cape Hump-back (M. Lalandii), is distributed over the South Atlantic, also towards both continents. There is a South Pacific form (M. novæ zelandiæ), the New Zealand Hump-back, stretching to the American coast, and still another, the Japanese Hump-back (M. kuzira), which ranges to the Aleutian and Californian coasts. These Whales are by no means as valuable for oil or baleen as the Right Whale, and are not very frequently hunted. An adult averages fifty feet in length. The skin of the throat and belly is plaited longitudinally like corrugated iron with narrow furrows. The flippers are very long, one-third or one-fourth the length of the animal, their edges often undulating. The characteristic feature or hump, is a low dorsal fin, situate behind the middle of the body. They have a bulky, stoutish body, and a broad flat head, and the neck vertebræ are usually separate. They are black, occasionally paler below, and some have white flippers, but the baleen is black. Dr. Rink says that when struck with harpoon, the Kepokak rushes along the surface without diving. They rest lazily near the surface, beating their flippers as if scratching themselves. The Greenlanders steal up to them when asleep, and stab them with lances. All the species, at times, seem to delight in endless springing and dashing out of the water. They will yield from twenty to thirty barrels of oil, and a few hundredweight of an inferior quality of whalebone. The Hump-back of the Pacific, according to Scammon, proceeds north in summer, and returns southwards on the approach of winter; but they have been observed with young following them at various times and seasons.

Considerable interest is attached to another Cetacean of the North Pacific, which Capt. Scammon names the California Grey Whale. The female of this animal is from forty to forty-four, and the male seldom more than thirty-five feet in length. In shape it may be said to be somewhat intermediate between the Right Whale, the Hump-backs, and the Rorquals, though in most respects nearest the last two. It has no back fin or hump, but instead a series of cross ridges on the hinder part of the back towards the tail. Occasionally individuals are nearly black, but the more common and characteristic colour is a mottled-grey or speckled patches of white on all the upper parts, underneath being darkest in body-tint. The flippers are fully six feet long, broad in the middle, but taper to a point. The head arches downwards from the blowhole forwards, and the baleen is remarkably short, brownish-white, and coarse in texture. From November till May this Whale frequents the Californian coast, and then the females enter the shallow bays and lagoons, and give birth to their young, while the males keep seawards. During the summer months they all journey northwards along the coast, and congregate amidst the ice in the Arctic Ocean and the Okhotsk Sea. So regular are their migrations, and so close in-shore do they swim, that Eskimo and Indians alike keep watch at the proper season, and as they pass successfully attack them in their canoes. The flukes, lips, and fins form native dainties, the oil is bartered for reindeer, a sauce is made of the entrails, and the Eskimo dogs feast on the flesh. Since 1851 a system of coast and bay whaling has been profitably pursued by the Americans along the Californian shores. At first 1,000 Whales would daily pass the outlook stations, though not a tenth part are now seen, so great has been the havoc and so shy of the land and whale-boats have the Californian Greys become. In calm weather these Whales will lie motionless for an hour or so on the surface of the water, but they nevertheless seem to delight in dashing and splashing among the surf and breakers. At other times they huddle together in shoal water, almost getting aground, while their young swim freely about in sportive play. The dam’s attachment to her offspring is very great, and hence lagoon whaling is most dangerous. Casualties are of constant occurrence in these narrow passages, the old Whale in her frenzy dashing her head against the boats, and lashing all around with her tail-flukes; hence the sailors call them “Devil-fish,” and “Hard-head,” while “Mussel-digger” is applied to them from their habit of probing among the mud. They often roam among the seaweed-banks, where the whaler shoots them with the harpoon-gun, as he lies in wait in a small boat or sailing craft. Thus this piebald Whale runs every chance of early extinction, seeing that whether in warm or cold latitudes, it is relentlessly pursued by its dire enemy--man.

THE FIN-WHALES, OR RORQUALS, as a group, vary exceedingly in size. Although at times of great dimensions, they are not so bulky in form and unwieldy as the foregoing whalebone groups. Their elongate bodies, smaller-mouthed heads, shorter baleen, plaited throats, and relatively narrow and small flippers, with a dorsal fin behind the middle of the back, high laterally-compressed tail-root, and separate neck-bones, besides other osteological characters, distinguish them sharply from the preceding. The amount of blubber and baleen in these Whales being exceedingly limited, coupled with their great muscular activity, restless disposition, difficulty and danger of approach, causes them to be seldom hunted. Their capture in fact is not remunerative. As a consequence, their numbers in some districts are considerable though scattered; even off British coasts certain species create great havoc in the herring and other fisheries. There may exist from eight to a dozen fairly-recognised species, and quite as many more doubtful ones. They have been divided into several genera by various naturalists, though there is a tendency to revert to the single term Balænoptera. So migratory are they, so active, and changeable towards localities, that little is known of their precise geographical distribution. They are found in the Polar seas, throughout the whole of the Atlantic, in the Indian, Pacific, and Antarctic Oceans. In their habits they have much in common. Ordinarily they do not congregate in large herds, though twos and threes, and occasionally more, keep company; others seem even more solitary in disposition. They are all more or less fish-eaters, and they commit great devastation among the Cod-bearing banks and Herring shoals--six and eight hundred fish having been found in the stomach of an individual. A few attain the enormous length of even 100 feet, and sixty or seventy feet is not an uncommon average, though some of the species are by no means distinguished on account of size. One of the largest forms is SIBBALD’S RORQUAL (B. Sibbaldii), black above and slate-grey below, varied with whitish spots. The Icelanders term this animal “Steypireythr,” and it is rather abundant in that region and South Greenland. Another of immense dimensions is known to the Pacific whalers as the SULPHUR-BOTTOM WHALE (B. (Sibbaldius) sulfureus). This glides with great velocity over the ocean, and is known at a distance by the vast amount of vapour it sends forth in blowing. Its yellowish belly gives its specific name. At times they appear in considerable numbers on the Californian coasts. One is recorded to have followed a ship for twenty-four consecutive days, and rifle-shots, &c., did not drive it away. The captain and crew at first had great fears of mischief, but at length the companionship of “Blowhard,” as they called him, and his close approach, became a subject of interest and merriment to them. The COMMON RORQUAL, or RAZOR-BACK (B. musculus), black above and brilliant white below, with an average length of sixty or seventy feet, is a well-known frequenter of British coasts. The LESSER RORQUAL (B. rostrata) resembles the last, but never reaches more than twenty-five or thirty feet. It frequents the North Atlantic and Arctic Ocean, and is supposed to stretch even as far as Labrador, Davis Strait, and the Aleutian Isles. It likewise has been met with several times in British waters, but it is best known as the “Seigval,” or Cod-Whale of Finland, and from the fact that it is a regular summer visitant to Norway.

A great many of the remains of Fossil Whales found in the Miocene and Pliocene deposits in various parts of Europe belong to the Fin-backs. One genus, the Cetotherium, Brandt has suggested, might form a transition between the Whales and our next order, the Sirenia. This supposition, however, is not borne out by facts, such features as denote likeness being rather deceptive. The Rhytina, a Sirenian, wanting teeth and with a somewhat Cetacean-like tail, however Whale-like in outward figure, in other respects is quite different from any member of the Order Cetacea, which taken as a whole cannot possibly be affirmed to show substantial links of close affinity either with the other Marine Mammalia or with the Land Mammalian groups.

JAMES MURIE.

ORDER SIRENIA (THE MANATEES).

Introductory Remarks--Mermaids--Position--General Characteristics of the Order--STELLER’S RHYTINA--Habits--Extinct--DUGONG--Range--Habits --Uses--Teeth--MANATEE--Distribution--Peculiar Mouth--Mode of Feeding--Story of “Patcheley,” a tame Manatee--Halitherium and other Fossil Forms.

This order of the Marine Mammalia comprises only a few animals, which, however, possess a peculiar interest to the zoologist. But two genera are now found alive, and a third genus was utterly extirpated about a century ago. Others are only known from fossil remains. Notwithstanding the ungainly, almost positively repulsive, appearance of the living forms, they yet have a hold on the popular imagination on account of their being the actual representatives of the famed Sirens and Mermaids of yore. The ancients, in their voyages to Eastern climes, gathered stories concerning the existence of strange creatures, half woman, half fish, chiefly frequenting the shores of Taprobane (Ceylon); and fancy, with oft-told but unchecked repetition of tales, soon lent a charm to the supposed beings, by conferring on these sea-nymphs imaginary flowing tresses, and sweet dulcet voices, by whose luring wiles the unwary mariner was entrapped, or led to destruction. Howsoever ridiculous such notions may now be regarded, they are, nevertheless, to be satisfactorily explained, for the singular Dugong, with its fish-like tail, roundish head, and mammæ on its breast, has the habit of occasionally raising half of its body perpendicularly out of the water and clasping its young to its breast. These actions have, doubtless, given a colourable pretext to all the fables of mermaids--those “missing links,” which even yet our children delight in, when narrated in “The Little Mermaid,” by the talented pen of a Hans Andersen.

The Manatee or Dugong group, partly from aquatic habitat and some outward resemblances, for long was classed among the Whales; by F. Cuvier they were termed the Grass-eating (“les Cétacés herbivores”) in contradistinction to the flesh-devouring Cete, or Whales proper. Early in this century Illiger signalised and defined them as a separate sub-order “Sirenia,” their organisation distinctly differing from that of the Whales; while De Blainville, later on, pressed their Elephant-like structures as entitling them to close proximity with these creatures--his “Gravigrades.”

a, Dotted outline of Lungs.]

Among the general characters of the Sirenia is a long, compact, cylindrical body (without back fin), narrowing towards the tail, which terminates either Whale-like, in forked flukes, or Beaver-like, in a great, flat, fibrous expansion, in either case set horizontally. The fore-limbs are encased, flat, and flipper-like, exceedingly flexible, and more completely formed than in Whales. The extinct and fossil Halitherium alone is known to have possessed rudiments of hind-limbs, though pelvic bones are present in all. Ears are wanting, and the eyes are very small, whilst two valvular nostrils are situate over a full prominent muzzle, which is provided with a copious supply of peculiar short bristles, while the inside angles of the mouth are hairy. Their dark skin is Elephant-like, tough, rough, sparsely hairy, or smoothish and Whale-like. The two mammæ are on the breast close to the armpits. One genus (Rhytina) was toothless, but the others had ample dentition. Moreover, in all the front of the upper and lower jaws is provided with curious, rough, horny pads or plates. The larynx differs from that of the Cetacea and resembles that of Land Mammals. The midriff, or diaphragm, is most unusually lengthened backwards. The apex of the heart is cleft, giving the appearance of a double organ, and the blood-vessels almost everywhere in the body and limbs split into rete mirabile. The stomach has two main digestive chambers, and to the first is added a pair of small divergent horn-shaped appendages, besides a remarkable finger-shaped gland. Unlike Whales or Elephants their small brain has few convolutions. All the bones are dense and heavy, and are the most solid among Mammals. Manatus is unique among the living Mammalia in having but six neck vertebræ, and, as in the other Sirenia, they are all separate. The ribs are uncommonly thick. The skull is relatively much smaller than in the Cetacea, is low set, somewhat elongated, and truncated at each extremity. The side bones (parietals) meet above, the occiput is small, the orbits well defined, and the nasal passages are directed forwards; the lower jaw has a high vertical limb (or ramus) behind, and in the Dugong the upper and lower jaw-bones are strangely bent down. The Sirenia are animals of slow habit, and are most inoffensive. They feed solely on aquatic vegetation. As being the most Whale-like in size and shape of tail, we shall first introduce to notice the Rhytina.

STELLER’S RHYTINA, the Morskaia Korava of the Russians, and alone representative of the genus, is a creature now extinct, but which was living and in tolerable abundance a hundred and fifty years ago. When the Russian, Behring--after whom the Strait is named--first visited that region and the neighbourhood of Kamstchatka, there existed a huge animal, of which, under the name of Manatee, or Northern Sea Cow (Vacca marina), the naturalist Steller, who accompanied him, gave a classical account. It had a small oblong head, a full bristly snout, a dark-coloured body, protected by a rugged, gnarled, warty, hairless skin. The fore limbs were quite short and stumpy, hairy at their ends, and they had no finger-bones beyond the wrist. The tail was black, ending in a horizontal, stiff, half-moon-shaped, narrow fin-blade, fringed with a fibrous whalebone-like material. It had no teeth, but horny, almost bony plates, corresponding to the horny gum-pads of the Dugong and Manatee, served the purpose of mastication. According to Steller, it attained a length of from twenty to twenty-eight feet.

Though stupid, voiceless, animals, they were of a very affectionate disposition, and were readily tamed, even allowing themselves to be handled. Their conjugal affection was strikingly developed. A male, who in vain attempted to relieve his partner, stuck by her, in spite of repeated blows, and when she died he returned to the spot for some days, as if he expected to see her again. They were very voracious, and fed on seaweeds, with their heads under water; and every now and then they raised their noses to breathe, and made a snorting noise. They appeared in families, each consisting of a male, female, one half grown, and a cub born in autumn; and sometimes these families united into great herds. As they were very good eating (far preferable to salt junk), Steller recommended them as articles of diet to the sailors; and so faithfully was his advice observed by natives and seamen, that within twenty-seven years of his first visit the last Rhytina was killed, namely, in 1768. They were hunted with a boat-hook attached to a long rope, which, when the animal was struck, was passed to a company of men on shore, who, with considerable difficulty, managed to land the huge Sea Cow. This animal appears to have had an extremely limited range, having never been met with anywhere but in the small Behring Island, off the coast of Kamstchatka. Their sudden extinction is a most noteworthy fact, and but for Steller’s admirable account nothing whatsoever would have been known of the habits, internal structure, or outward appearance of this singular Sirenian. Though the adults were toothless, yet by some it is supposed from analogy that in early life functionless teeth may have existed, though these never appeared above the gums. The Rhytina, in its forked tail, somewhat down-bent jaws, and other points, resembled the Dugong; while in skull characters and skin it was like the Manatee; and though somewhat whale-shaped, it was a true Sirenian.

THE DUGONG, typical of the genus Halicore, is a living form, ordinarily from ten to twelve feet long, though very old males are said occasionally to reach as much as eighteen to twenty feet. Its distribution is rather widespread, namely, from the Red Sea and East African coasts to the west coast of Australia; and they are even yet not unfrequently met with within these limits, on the coasts of Mauritius, Ceylon, and the Indian Archipelago, though in numbers fast becoming thinned. Outwardly they differ from the Rhytina in being smoother-skinned, and in having the fore-limbs longer, and the tail semi-lunar, but deeper or less fluked, and not marginally split. Their colour is slaty-brown or bluish-black above, and whitish below. The early traveller, Leguat, speaks of droves of several hundreds grazing like Sheep on the seaweeds a few fathoms deep in the clear waters of the Mascarene Islands. Usually this tropical animal frequents the shallow smooth waters of the bays, inlets, and river estuaries where marine vegetation (fucus and seaweeds) is in abundance, and there it leisurely feeds, being lethargic in disposition, but an immense eater. When they have not been much chased they are not shy or timid, and even allow the natives to handle them; on which occasions the admiring spectators generally manage to abstract the smaller and fatter cubs as dainties, for they are considered uncommon good food. So highly prized are they, that the Malay king considers it a royal “fish,” and he claims all taken in his dominions. The flesh of the young, when cooked in a variety of ways, is certainly wholesome--by some compared to veal, and by others to beef or pork--but the older animals are tougher. The Moreton Bay colonists call them “Sea Pig.” They yield a clear oil of the best quality, which is free from all objectionable smell, and it is strongly recommended as a remedial agent in lieu of cod-liver oil. Hence an Australian Dugong fishery has been established; but its equipped boats’ crews are fast sweeping off the once plentiful numbers. The stories of their being found ashore, browsing on land herbage, are not supported by fact; indeed, the inadequate strength of their fore-limbs, the absence of hind extremities, and their unwieldy bodies, prevent them from travelling on land. This is borne out by the statements of the natives of Sumatra to Sir Stamford Raffles, as well as other travellers. The Red Sea Arabs told Dr. Rüppell that they had feeble voices, a fact that other Australian observers have corroborated, although the roaring of Seals has been mistaken for them. In the spring months the males do battle for partners, and the young are born towards the end of the year. Like the Rhytina, the Dugong shows intense maternal affection, for if the young be taken, the mother suffers herself to be speared in following her offspring. In its strange bristly-clad muzzle the Dugong resembles its congeners, but its skull and dentition are singular. Thus, the fore or premaxillary region of the upper jaw is elongated, sharply crooked downwards, and overlaps the very deep lower jaw, which is similarly down-bent. The two opposed surfaces bear the horny tuberculated plates which rub and grind the vegetable food. The dental formula ordinarily is--Incisors, (1-1)/(0-0); canines, (0-0)/(0-0); molars, (3-3)/(3-3) = 14. The pair of incisor tusks are lodged in the down-bent upper jaw, and protrude in the male, but in the female they are diminutive, and retained within the bone. Behind them there is a considerable space devoid of canine, and then come three slightly laterally compressed ovoid molars without enamel. The molars, however, may occasionally be five in number, the fore ones dropping out, and others behind taking their places, but not succeeding vertically. In some instances the males have an additional lateral small incisor. Thus as many as twenty-four teeth may be developed, but these are never in use at one and the same time. This peculiar dentition, and the successive displacement of the anterior molars, foreshadows what is regularly found in the Elephants and Mastodons.

The MANATEE, or Lamantin of the French, inhabits the African and American Continents. In Africa it ranges along the west coast, and ascends the Senegal, Niger, Congo, and other rivers, where it not only frequents the lagoons, but even has been captured in Lake Tchad. This animal is known as M. senegalensis. In America two forms are supposed to exist--one, the M. latirostris, of Florida, is said to have closer resemblance to the African form than to its fellow-countryman; the other, M. americanus, is found in Surinam, Guiana, Jamaica, the Amazon and its tributaries, and, indeed, in the various rivers, bays, and inlets of the tropical American coast. These creatures, like the foregoing, browse upon the aquatic vegetation of the shallow lagoons and river banks, apparently, however, having a preference for fresh-water plants. Their habits and mode of feeding are, in a measure, similar to those of the Dugong and the Rhytina. The full-grown Manatee is from ten to twelve feet in length. Its long body terminates in a thin, wide, shovel-shaped, fibrous, horizontal tail, proportionally broader, but resembling somewhat that of the Beaver. The fore-limbs, or flippers, have diminutive flat nails. The skin of the body can be compared only to that of the Elephant, not in colour alone, but also in its coarse, wrinkly texture, and widely-scattered, delicate, but long hairs. Its deep-set, minute eye is surrounded by skin wrinkles. As in the preceding genera, the muzzle is peculiar--a kind of half-moon-shaped swelling above, with deep crossing wrinkles set with short stiff bristles. Beneath this there projects a mass of hard gum, covered with a roughened horny plate. The lower jaw also has a gum plate, underhung by a bristle-clad lower lip. The nostrils are two semi-lunar, valve-like slits, at the apex of the muzzle. When the mouth is opened, the marginal inner cheeks are seen to be hair-covered, and the hard, horny palate to be very conspicuous above and below. This remarkable muzzle and mouth are specially adapted to the animal’s mode of feeding. Steller long ago remarked that the Rhytina’s muzzle was exceedingly prehensile; but in a live Manatee exhibited at the London Zoological Gardens, Professor Garrod observed and has recorded the remarkable manner and use of this lip-structure. In grasping its food, the bristly-clad outer angles of the upper lip at first diverge, and then approximate like a pair of pincers, holding the object firmly, which is then drawn inwards by a backward movement of the lips. The horny pads again on the closing of the mouth further bruise the vegetable matter. In 1866, the Zoological Society sent Mr. Clarence Bartlett to Surinam, to bring home a young Manatee. This suckling, christened “Patcheley,” had been obtained when quite a baby by the Indians, and duly transferred to a lakelet, where he had his freedom. Although fishy in form and fondness for the water, he had nevertheless to receive daily a good quantum of Cow’s milk from a bottle. He soon got fond of the “black Jack,” as well as of his keeper. Mr. Bartlett, as wet nurse, had a difficulty in training his charge. Loosely attired, he waded about and coaxed his pet to the water’s edge, where, after a stolen suck or two, he permitted himself to be raised partly on his knees, and then sucked away might and main till the bottle was dry. His appetite satisfied, he seemed in high glee, tumbled and rolled about a while, then got quieter, retired to the pool, and slept lazily near the surface. At times his disposition was more rollicking, and Master Patcheley would overturn his nurse into the mud, where the two spluttered and floundered for possession of the bottle. Clusius recounts how a pet “Mato” was kept by a Spanish Governor for twenty-six years; it came at call to the side of the lake to be fed, and would even allow boys to mount on its back while it harmlessly swam about. For long the pursuit of the Manatee has been a favourite amusement with the natives. One instance is related of Indians on the Mosquito shore spearing it from canoes, when the animal darted off as he felt the weapon, dragging the canoe after it round and round the bight until exhausted. Mr. Alfred R. Wallace says the natives of the Amazon capture them alive, in strong nets, at the mouth of the streams, and afterwards kill them by thrusting wooden plugs up their nostrils. The Manatee has no milk-teeth, though when young there are two rudimentary incisors in each jaw, which afterwards become covered in. Canines are entirely absent, and the molars vary in number from nine to eleven in the upper and lower jaw on each side. Those in the upper series are three-rooted, in the lower series two-rooted; all the molars are broad, square-crowned, and with transverse ridging or cusp structure like that of the Hippopotamus or partly like that of Mastodon. The molar series are never simultaneously in place and use, those in front dropping out and making room for those behind.

FOSSIL SIRENIA.--The HALITHERIUM is the name given to certain fossil remains which have been found in the Miocene strata of Germany and various other parts of Europe. These remains show that there may have been several species, but all are truly of a Sirenian character. The fossil remains were intermediate, though possibly most closely allied to the Manatee, some of them being slightly larger than this animal. The dentition is unusually interesting, inasmuch as there appear to have been vertical successors; anteriorly there are simple, cylindrical premolars, and posteriorly larger, complex molars, while the somewhat bent-down upper jaw bore tusk-like appendages. But the most peculiar and interesting point in connection with the Halitheria, is that they were provided with rudiments of a hind limb, a thigh-bone some few inches in length having been found by the late Professor Kaup, though curiously enough no further vestige of it has since turned up. Judging from the almost complete skeletons obtained, and from comparison with what we know of other Sirenia, the Halitherium must have closely resembled the living Manatee, and possibly have lived in the lagoons and brackish waters of mid-Europe and elsewhere, for in the Eocene and Miocene times these regions, now high and dry, formed watery areas in communication with the ocean.

Besides the foregoing, within the last few years our knowledge of Sirenoids has been considerably augmented by the discovery of other fossil remains indicating several new genera. Prorastomus is founded by Owen on a skull from West Indian (doubtful) Tertiary strata. Crassitherium is applied by Van Beneden to vertebræ, and part of a skull from deposits near Antwerp. Felsinotherium, (with but (5-5)/(5-5) molar teeth) is a form described by Capellini, from Pliocene beds in Bologna. Pachyacanthus, found in strata in the neighbourhood of Vienna, Brandt supposed a Cetacean, but Van Beneden regards it as a Sirenian. The Rhytiodus, of Lartet, is based on some fossil teeth bearing resemblances to those of the Dugong. Lastly comes (in the cast of a brain), the still more remarkable Eotherium of Owen, from the nummulitic Eocene of Egypt. Some of these fossils are of intense interest, for example, Prorastomus, the Tapir-like dentition of which is--Incisors, (3-3)/(3-3); canines, (1-1)/(1-1); premolars, (5-5)/(5-5); molars, (3-3)/(3-3) = 48. Very interesting also are Pachyacanthus, with possibly but six neck vertebræ, like the Manatee; and Halitherium, with its hind limb bones, and which also, along with Felsinotherium, foreshadows the molar pattern of Hippopotamus. Thus, taking these facts into consideration, together with many other structural peculiarities, Elephant-like and otherwise, and notwithstanding that the Sirenia are aquatic and Whale-like, their structural relationship with the Proboscidea and Ungulata is not so far-fetched as at first sight might seem. But the gap is not yet bridged, and until that is done the order Sirenia must be retained.

JAMES MURIE.

ORDER PROBOSCIDEA (ELEPHANTS).

Order Proboscidea--Antiquity of the Elephant--Referred to in the Bible--Mentioned in the Apocrypha--War Elephants--Their Accoutrements--Hannibal’s Elephants--Elephants amongst the Romans--Skull--Dentition--Vertebræ--Odd Delusion about its Legs--Proboscis--Species--THE INDIAN ELEPHANT--Size--Range--Habits--Various Modes of Capture--Keddah--Used as a Labourer or Nurse--Sagacity--White Elephants--THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT--Characteristics--Range--Habits and Haunts--Hunting--Pitfalls--Aggageers Chasing--Elephant-Shooting--How the Natives Cut it up--FOSSIL ELEPHANTS AND THEIR ALLIES--Absurd Stories--MAMMOTH--How it was first Found--Story of the Fourth or Benkendorf’s Discovery--Range--MASTODON--DINOTHERIUM.

The Elephants, Horses, Rhinoceroses, Tapirs, Coneys, Pigs, and Hippopotami, were all grouped together by the older naturalists under the order of Pachyderms, or thick-skinned animals provided with hoofs, but not furnished with a complex stomach for rumination, or chewing of the cud. They are now divided into three different orders--the Proboscidea, Hyracoidea, and Ungulata--which we shall define and describe each in its proper place.

The order Proboscidea, or animals possessed of a proboscis, or trunk, consists of two living species, the Indian and African Elephant, and two extinct genera known as Dinotherium and Mastodon. The Elephant, from its large size and its singular sagacity, attracted the attention of man in the earliest times, and was always looked upon with feelings of awe and reverence. At the present time the African savage, in the region of the Congo, compasses its death with the mysterious aid of the medicine-man, according to Mr. Winwood Reade, as well as by the ordinary means of hunting. The animal, in early times, was used both for purposes of war and peace, and figures, at the present time, alike in the gorgeous retinues of Indian princes, and ministers to the more humble and more useful services of the husbandman. The ivory furnished by its tusks was known in the remotest antiquity. The first undoubted mention of the Elephant in the Bible relates to the use of ivory, which certainly was employed by the ancient Greeks, Assyrians, and Egyptians early in their history.

King Solomon had a throne of ivory, which was obtained through the Phœnician traders probably from Africa. “For the king had at sea a navy of Tharshish (Cilicia) with the navy of Hiram; once in three years came the navy of Tharshish, bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks” (1 Kings x. 22). Elephants are also mentioned in 2 Chron. ix. 21; and at considerable length in the first and second books of Maccabees, where their use in war is described (1 Macc. vi. 28-30; 43-46).

The Elephants were used in war also by the Indian nations, and were looked upon as most formidable engines in battle. By the aid of these huge creatures, to a large extent, they conquered and held possession of the region of Central Asia west of the Indus.

It appears that the relative force of Elephants in a great army corps was one to each chariot of war, with three horsemen and five archers, the latter being perched on the Elephant’s back within a houdah of a defensible nature, denominated a castle, the whole forming what was termed a patti, or squad, comprising altogether not more than eleven men, with the drivers or attendants. This shows that in India, which furnished Elephants and the manner of arming them, only four or five archers, with or without the mahout, or driver, were told off to each animal; consequently, when the successors of Alexander introduced them in their wars in Syria, Greece, and Italy, they were not encumbered with more than one or two additional persons before a charge. Indeed, considerable trouble appears to have been taken that a war Elephant should not be nearly as heavily laden as one simply used for carrying burdens; therefore the number of thirty-two soldiers given in Maccabees as seated upon each Elephant must somehow or other be a mistake. These Elephants were well trained, and taught to hold out one of their hind legs horizontally, when it was necessary to mount them in a hurry. They appeared to take considerable delight and satisfaction in the gaudy trappings with which they were usually decorated. In some cases, Elephants have proved more dangerous to the army in whose ranks they were serving than to the enemy, by being suddenly confronted with objects previously unobserved. On such occasions they turn in haste, and spread terror and death into their own ranks. Careful, judicious, and long-continued training was the only remedy against these sudden surprises.

African Elephants probably were never so well trained and subdued as the Indian; nevertheless, they were used by the Carthaginians in the first Punic War (264-241 B.C.) with much success, and to the discomfiture of the Romans. In the second Punic War (218-216 B.C.) Hannibal performed the most astounding and remarkable feats of crossing the Pyrenees, making his way through Gaul, crossing the Alps with thirty-seven Elephants, and defeating the Romans at the Ticinus. Most of the Elephants, however, died shortly afterwards from the excessive coldness of the weather and the fatigue they had undergone. Various accounts are given in Roman history regarding the manner in which the Elephants crossed the Rhone. One story goes that they were assembled together on the bank, and the fiercest of them being provoked by his keeper, pursued him as he swam across the water, to which he had run for refuge, and that the rest of the herd followed. There is, however, more reason to believe that they were conveyed across on rafts. It is said that one raft two hundred feet long and fifty broad was extended from the bank to the river, and was then secured higher up by several strong cables to the bank, that it might not be carried down by the stream. The soldiers then covered it over with earth, so that the animals might tread upon it without fear, as on solid ground. Another raft one hundred feet long, and of the same breadth as the other, was joined to this first. The Elephants were driven along the stationary raft as along a road, and then, the females leading the way, passed on to the other raft, which was fastened to it by lashings. This, on being cut, was drawn by boats to the opposite shore. The Elephants gave no signs whatever of alarm, while they were driven along as it were on a continuous bridge; but a few became infuriated when the raft was let loose, and fell into the river, finding their way, however, safely to the shore.

The trappings and armour of a war Elephant have been described by the author of the “Ayeen Akbery” as follows:--“Five plates of iron, each one cubit long and four fingers broad, are joined together by rings, and fastened round the ears of the Elephant by four chains, each an ell in length; and betwixt these another chain passes over the head, and is secured beneath; and across it are four iron spikes, with ratasses and iron knobs. There are other chains with iron spikes and knobs, hung under the throat and over the breasts, and others fastened to the trunk; these are for ornament and to frighten Horses. Pakher is a kind of steel armour that covers the body of the Elephant; there are other pieces of it for the head and proboscis.”

s, Air Sinuses; n, Nostrils; b, Brain; m, Molar; t, Tusk.]

History informs us that when Timour, or Tamerlane, attacked the dominions of the Sultan Mahmoud (A.D. 1399), the Elephants, of which the latter had a considerable number, caused great terror and alarm; and that the preparations made by Timour to overcome the Elephants were of the most extraordinary nature, for not only did he surround his camp with a deep ditch and bucklers, but also had Buffaloes tied together round the ramparts, with huge brambles on their heads, which were to be set on fire at the approach of the Elephants. The forces of the Sultan, besides the Elephants, consisted of a large number of horse and foot soldiers armed with swords and poisoned daggers. Attendant upon the Elephants were men armed with fire, melted pitch, and other horrid missiles, to be hurled at the invaders. The Elephants also, besides being armed, were decorated with all sorts of articles, such as cymbals and bells, and other objects likely to create a noise and confusion. Notwithstanding all this terrific display, Timour’s forces fought with great courage, actually defeating the Sultan’s forces, and putting the Elephants to flight, the unfortunate creatures undergoing severe usage to their trunks by the swordsmen, who appeared soon to find out the more vulnerable parts. It is said that the trunks of many of the Elephants were left scattered on the battle-field, having been severed by the sword. The belief in the invincibility of the Elephants was then for ever gone; and it is even said of Timour’s grandson, then quite a boy, that he himself wounded an Elephant, and drove it in as a captive to his grandfather’s camp.

We are told that in ancient times the number of Elephants annually brought from Africa to Rome, to be trained for the cruel and disgusting practice of fighting in the theatre, was very great. It is said of Pompey that, at the dedication of his theatre, no less than five hundred Lions, eighteen Elephants, and a number of armed men, were all at one time in the circus. In the second consulate of Pompey (54 B.C.) Elephants were opposed, in the circus, to Getulian archers; and, according to Pliny, this exhibition was characterised by some uncommon circumstances. One of the Elephants, although furious from a wound, is recorded to have seized upon the shields of his adversaries, and to have thrown them in the air with a peculiar movement, doubtless the effect of training, which caused the shields to whirl round before their fall. It is also stated that an Elephant, having been killed by a thrust of a javelin through the eye, the others rushed forward in a general charge to save him, and that on their coming with terrific force against the iron railings, the latter gave way, and several of the spectators were either injured or killed. On another occasion, when some Elephants, with other wild animals, were fighting together in the arena, the spectators so compassionated the unfortunate creatures, who were raising their trunks to heaven and roaring piteously, as if imploring aid of the gods, that they rose from their seats, and, disregarding Pompey’s presence, demanded that the Elephants might be spared. The destruction of Elephants in sport by the Romans, as well as the increased demands of the ivory trade, have caused the African Elephants to disappear from those regions of Northern Africa which they once inhabited. In the days of the Carthaginians, the animal was found north of the Sahara, where at present it is unknown.

The skull of the Elephant is remarkable for its great size, and the comparatively small cavity occupied by the brain. The latter is small in comparison to the size of the animal, in bulk not much exceeding that of man. Although the bones of the skull are so large, they are not solid, their interior being occupied by hollows divided from each other by thin partitions, by which means the skull is rendered lighter than might be supposed; and altogether it forms a beautiful instance of a provision for increasing the surface for attachment of muscles, without being too great a burden to its possessor. The skull of the Indian Elephant is of a much more pyramidal and less shapely form than that of the African.

The dentition in the Elephants presents several points of considerable interest. In the Indian species, the males alone have well-developed incisors; while both sexes of the African species are provided with them. These--more commonly known as tusks--grow to an enormous size, sometimes reaching the weight of from a hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds. There are no lower incisors, and only two of the molar teeth are to be seen at each side of the jaw at one time. There are six of these in each side, or four-and-twenty in all, in the lifetime of the Elephant, and these present a gradual increase in size as they successively appear. These teeth move forward into their working place in the jaw in regular succession, from behind forwards, each being pushed out by its successor as it gradually becomes worn away. The teeth are worn away, not merely by the food on which the animal lives, but also by the particles of sand and grit entangled in the roots of the herbs torn up for food, and their wear is compensated by the growth and development of the succeeding teeth. In a state of captivity, however, where the food is much more free from extraneous substances than in a state of nature, the teeth are not worn away fast enough to make room for the development of the successors, and it therefore frequently happens that the tooth is deformed by a piling over of the plates of which it is composed.

A, Upper; B, Lower.]

The molar or grinding-teeth of the Elephant are for the most part buried in the socket, and present little more than a surface for mastication above the gum. Each is composed of a number of transverse perpendicular plates, built up of a body of dentine, covered by a layer of enamel, and this again by a layer of cement, which fills the interspaces of the plates, and binds together the divisions into one solid mass. Each of these enamel plates, however, in the perfect tooth is united at the base. When these plates of enamel--which stand out in the transverse plates on account of their superior hardness, and cause the grinding surface to be uneven--are worn out, the animal either dies of indigestion, or more often becomes weak, and falls a prey to wild beasts.

The difference between the grinders of the Indian and African Elephants is well defined. In the former, the transverse ridges of enamel are narrower, more undulating, and more numerous than in the African, in which latter species the ridges are less parallel, and enclose lozenge-shaped spaces. The cervical vertebræ form a short and stiff series, allowing but a limited motion of the head from side to side, a more extended action being rendered unnecessary by the flexibility of the trunk. With regard to the dorsal vertebræ, they appear to vary in number in both species. In the African species the number varies from twenty to twenty-one, and in the Indian species from nineteen to twenty. As might be expected, the limbs of the Elephant are massive and powerful. In ancient times it was a popular delusion that the legs of an Elephant possessed no joints; and even now people are to be found who believe that the Elephant’s joints move in a contrary direction to that of other quadrupeds. Shakspere evidently enjoyed the popular belief. In Troilus and Cressida, Ulysses, speaking of the stiff demeanour of Ajax towards Achilles, says:--

“The Elephant hath joints, but none for courtesy, His legs are legs for necessity, not for flexure.”

And so in Chapman’s drama (1605) of All Fools we read:--

“I hope you are no Elephant, you have joints.”

These ideas originated from the peculiar gait of the Elephant.

The shape of the Elephant is so familiar to every one that it is only necessary to remark that the ponderous body, clad in a thick and almost hairless skin, has the fore-quarters higher than the hinder parts, and that the thigh in the hind leg is long and straight when the animal is standing. The knee is visible below the body, and bends so as to bring the foot in the rear. On comparing an Elephant and a Carnivore, and their skeletons as well, the arrangement of the joints of the hind quarters will be noticed to be different. In fact, the bend of the Elephant’s knee gives the gait of the huge creature an appearance unlike that of any other animal. It stands on the ends of its five toes, each of which is terminated by comparatively small hoofs, and the heel-bone is a little distance from the ground. Beneath comes the wonderful cushion, composed of membranes, fat, nerves, and blood-vessels, besides muscles, which constitutes the sole of the foot. The fore-foot is larger than the hind one, and as the creature does not require to climb, or to lift its fore-limb very high, there is no collar-bone. In the young there is more hair on the body than might have been expected, and they have a set of milk teeth.

The brain is greatly convoluted on the surface, but the little brain, or cerebellum, is not covered by the brain proper.

A, Muscles and Tendons; B, Transverse Section.]

The trunk or proboscis of the Elephant, from which the name of the order to which this animal belongs is derived, is certainly a remarkable and wonderful organ. It is really a prolongation of the nose, of a sub-conical form, consisting of two tubes divided by a septum. At the extremity on the upper side, above the opening of the nostrils, is a lengthened process to be looked upon in the light of a finger; beneath this finger is a tubercle, opposable to it, and acting, so to speak, as a thumb. With this organ, which is nearly eight feet in length, of considerable stoutness, and extreme sensibility, the Elephant is enabled to uproot or shake trees, lift a cannon, or pick up a pin. By its aid, food and water are carried to the mouth, and when necessary, it can be converted into a syringe or a shower-bath. The length of the organ does away with the necessity of a long neck, a short and muscular neck being absolutely required for the support of the enormous head and tusks.

The principal characters of the Indian species, as compared with the African, are the small ears, concave forehead, small eye, lighter colour, and the possession of four instead of three nails or hoofs on the hind foot. There is also a very remarkable difference in the teeth, those of the Indian species being built up of a series of plates much more numerous and more closely packed together than in the African species.

THE INDIAN ELEPHANT.--There are but two living species of Elephant--the Indian (Elephas indicus) and the African (Elephas africanus), although some naturalists have considered the Elephant of Sumatra and Ceylon to be a distinct species, and Schlegel has separated it from both the Indian and African, and defined it as E. sumatrensis. It has been, however, shown by Dr. Falconer and others, that although certain differences are to be noticed, they are not of sufficient value to create a new species; but they are still of sufficient importance to form a variety.

In size, notwithstanding the differences of opinion to be found between certain writers on this subject, some saying that the Indian and others that the African Elephant is the larger, it seems perfectly clear that there cannot be much difference between the two species, and that the maximum height is about eleven feet.

The Indian Elephant (where the progress of civilisation has not interfered with it) is found over the greater part of the forest lands of India, Ceylon, Burmah, Siam, Cochin-China, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra; but it is doubtful whether it is indigenous to any of the other islands of the Eastern Archipelago. Unlike the African species, to a certain extent, it appears to have a partiality for coolness and shade; indeed, Sir J. Emerson Tennent says that “although found generally in warm and sunny climates it is a mistake to suppose that the Elephant is partial either to heat or to light. In Ceylon, the mountain tops, and not the sultry valleys, are its favourite resort. In Oovah, where the elevated plains are often crisp with the morning frost, and on Pedura-talla-galla, at the height of upwards of eight thousand feet, they are found in herds, whilst the hunter may search for them without success in the hot jungles of the low country.”

In some parts of the country Elephants are exceedingly destructive to crops of grain. And in various parts of India, notwithstanding the care and trouble taken to watch the crops, they do much injury. When the rice approaches maturity it is necessary to place watchers throughout the night in places which they frequent. Stages are erected on posts twelve or fourteen feet high, and on one side of the stage a small shed is made for the watchmen, two of whom always mount the same stage. One feeds a fire kept constantly burning on the open part, while the other in his turn is allowed to sleep, and when any Elephants come into the field, he is awakened and both join in shouting and making all the noise they can with sticks and drums.

The food of the Elephant appears to be considerably varied, and chosen by the animal with no small amount of daintiness; sweet-tasting fruits, seeds, and blossoms he has the greatest partiality for, and in their selection much destruction is occasioned by a herd of these huge animals. Tennent says that in Ceylon, where the food of the Elephant is most abundant, the animal never appears to be in a hurry to eat; but amuses himself with playing with the leaves, shaking the trees, tearing the bark, and now and then pausing to eat, altogether taking the whole affair in a very leisurely sort of way. He is especially fond of the fruit of the palmyra palm, and never fails to make his appearance in the districts where these trees grow when the fruit begins to fall to the ground. Although the amount of food consumed by Elephants in their wild state is very large, there is reason to believe that many stories told of their extraordinary eating capabilities are much exaggerated. It by no means follows that because an Elephant in a tame state will eat so much bread, turnips, hay, &c., that it consumes the same quantity of its natural food in a wild state. The Elephants are believed to drink nightly in very hot weather, but in cool weather only every third or fourth day, and for this purpose they travel long distances to their watering-places, even as far as ten or twenty miles, refreshing themselves by a bath and a drink at the same time when they reach their destination.

Various modes are used for catching Elephants; but the usual practice is to drive them into what is termed a keddah. The keddah is a large area surrounded by a broad ditch, and towards the entrance is a similar construction to the main body, but smaller, acting as a sort of funnel, into which the Elephants enter when driven from the jungle, and which assists in getting them into the keddah itself.

On discovering a large herd of Elephants, a body of men, often numbering six or eight thousand, are collected to surround them, carrying all sorts of instruments likely to create a noise, such as firearms, drums, trumpets, &c., Elephants being exceedingly alarmed by any unusual noises. By this means they are gradually driven into the keddah, sometimes from a distance of thirty or forty miles, which frequently occupies some days. When the Elephants find themselves fairly entrapped, they become violent and use their utmost endeavours to break down the barriers.

Formerly, it was the practice to starve these captured Elephants into submission; now, however, by means of two tame ones, trained for the purpose, they can be captured without injury, one by one, and afterwards bound to a tree. To accomplish this the trained animals are sent into the enclosure, and on a wild Elephant being singled out, the two trained ones place themselves one on each side, and attract its attention while the attendants are occupied in binding its legs, which having been satisfactorily accomplished, the captive is dragged to a tree and fastened firmly, where it remains until reduced to submission and obedience by kindness and good feeding.

“The vast jungles in the south-eastern portion of the Mysore territory are infested with herds of wild Elephants, whose depredations on the adjacent lands have retarded agriculture to a serious extent. A project was set on foot by Mr. G. P. Sanderson, a young and energetic officer in the service of the Mysore Government, to convert these Elephants to some use by capturing and taming them. Mr. Sanderson’s design was to drive a herd into a strongly embanked channel leading out of the Houhole river, escape being cut off at one end by it deep ditch, and the other opening on the river, guarded by Elephant chains supported by strong posts. On the 9th June, 1874, the Elephants being reported in the neighbourhood, a large party of natives, led by Mr. Sanderson and two other ardent sportsmen, hurried to the spot, and quietly drove the animals towards the channel. The leading Elephant being pushed from behind by his companions, tumbled over the bank, and the latter soon followed. This having been effected, the embankment was quickly strengthened, large fires lighted at intervals along it, and watchers placed for the night. The next point was to move the Elephants into a still smaller enclosure, which was prepared close by. It was funnel-shaped at the mouth, and formed of trunks of trees, firmly fixed in the ground, the snare being disguised by branches and brushwood. Over the neck of the funnel, so to speak, a drop formed of two large cocoa-nut trees lashed together was suspended by a rope, to be severed at a stroke when the Elephants were all in. The herd, terrified by firebrands, rockets, and guns, were driven towards the keddah, and led by a troublesome tusker, who had long kept the others at bay, marched majestically one by one through the gate. After a short pause, owing to a stand being made by a few of the most refractory, the last of the herd went in with a rush, closely followed by a frantic native waving a firebrand. An officer sitting ready on a branch of a tree now cut the rope, and the drop fell amid loud cheers, thus capturing the rich prize of fifty-three Elephants, which were brought out one by one with the assistance of tame Elephants. The latter advance in a body and gradually cut one off from the herd. While amusing it, and distracting its attention, its legs are warily tied by trained men. After this no difficulty is encountered. The capture described included twelve valuable tuskers, and its value was estimated at over £4,000.”

Indian Elephants are also sometimes captured by means of pitfalls formed in a similar manner to those used in Africa. There is, however, one great objection to this mode of capture, which is, that the animal is rendered very liable, from the heavy fall it sustains, of being seriously hurt, and indeed injuries thus received have often proved fatal.

Another way of catching these animals in some districts of India is by means of the lasso. Two trained females are procured for the purpose; these are provided with a long rope which is fastened to their girdle, and then coiled on their backs. Its end forms a noose, which a man, who sits on the back of the trained female, throws round the neck of the wild Elephant; the tame one then walks away until the captured one is almost strangled. In the meantime, the people, assisted by another tame female, endeavour to fasten ropes to his legs, and he is dragged to a place where there are trees, to which he is fastened until he becomes tame. The Elephants caught in this manner are usually small, and the majority, for some reason or other, die, probably from the rough usage they have undergone.

Elephant shooting, especially in Ceylon, was considered to be the acme of sport; but from the number that were wantonly destroyed, an order was issued by the Governor prohibiting their destruction. The Elephant is invaluable as a labourer; its assistance in road-making, bridge-building, ploughing, piling logs, lifting weights, and other similar operations, is of the utmost service. Even as a nurse for young children, its services, we are told, are sometimes required. An Indian officer relates that he has seen the wife of a mahout (for the followers often take their families with them to camp), give a baby in charge of an Elephant, while she went on some business, and has been highly amused in observing the sagacity and care of the unwieldy nurse. The child, which, like most children, did not like to be at rest in one position, would, as soon as left to itself, begin crawling about, in which exercise it would probably get among the legs of the animal, or entangled in the branches of the trees on which he was feeding, when the Elephant would in the most tender manner disengage his charge, either by lifting it out of the way with his trunk, or by removing the impediments to its free progress. If the child had crawled to such a distance as to verge upon the limits of his range (for the animal was chained by the leg to a peg driven in the ground), he would stretch out his trunk and lift it back as gently as possible to the spot whence it had started.

(From a Photograph by Symmons and Co., Chancery Lane, expressly taken for this work.)]

Endless other stories are told of the sagacity of this noble animal, some of them, however, probably not ungarnished with considerable exaggeration. However, this creature does undoubtedly possess a most wonderful amount of intelligence, and it is believed that the Indian species, both in sagacity and docility, surpasses the African.

The White Elephants, held in reverence in Siam, and extremely rare, are not distinct from the rest; they are merely albinoes, or white varieties, and are to be viewed in the same light as white Blackbirds or white Sparrows.

THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT is distinguished at once from the Indian species by the great size of its ears, its larger eye, convex forehead, darker colour of its skin, and by possessing only three instead of four nails or hoofs in the hind foot. It is indigenous to Africa, being found south of the Sahara as far as Cape Colony, and from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic. It formerly lived north of the Sahara, and in the Pleistocene age of geologists was found in Europe, in Italy, and in Spain, to which points it probably crossed at the time when the submerged barriers between Sicily and Africa, and Gibraltar and Africa, were above the level of the water.

Unlike the Indian species, both the males and the females are provided with tusks. The African differs also considerably in his habits, for while the Indian enjoys coolness and shade, the African is more or less exposed to the burning sun.

According to Sir Samuel Baker, “in Africa the country being generally more open than in Ceylon, the Elephant remains throughout the day either beneath a solitary tree, or exposed to the sun in the vast prairies, where the thick grass attains a height of from nine to twelve feet. The general food of the African Elephant consists of the foliage of trees, especially of mimosas. Many of the mimosas are flat-headed, about thirty feet high, and the richer portion of the foliage confined to the crown. Thus, the Elephant, not being able to reach to so great a height, must overturn the tree to procure the coveted food. The destruction caused by a herd of Elephants in a mimosa forest is extraordinary, and I have seen trees uprooted of so large a size that I am convinced no single Elephant could have overturned them. I have measured trees four feet six inches in circumference, and about thirty feet high, uprooted by Elephants. The natives have assured me that they mutually assist each other, and that several engage together in the work of overturning a large tree. None of the mimosas have tap roots; thus the powerful tusks of the Elephants applied as crowbars at the roots, while others pull at the branches with their trunks, will effect the destruction of a tree so large as to appear invulnerable.”

The following account by Gordon Cumming, which, on some points as to the habits and haunts of the African Elephant does not agree with that of Sir Samuel Baker, may be explained by the different nature of the country hunted by him:--“The Elephant is widely diffused through the vast forests, and is met with in herds of various numbers. The male is much larger than the female. He is provided with two enormous tusks. These are long, tapering, and beautifully arched; their length averages from six to eight feet, and they weigh from sixty to a hundred pounds each. In the vicinity of the Equator the Elephants attain to a larger size than to the southward; and I am in possession of a pair of tusks of the African bull Elephant, the larger of which measures ten feet nine inches in length, and weighs one hundred and seventy-three pounds.

“Old bull Elephants are found singly or in pairs, or consorting together in small herds, varying from six to twenty individuals. The younger bulls remain for many years in the company of their mothers, and these are met together in large herds of from twenty to a hundred individuals. The food of the Elephant consists of the branches, leaves, and roots of the trees, and also of a variety of bulbs, of the situation of which he is advised by his exquisite sense of smell. To obtain these he turns up the ground with his tusks, and whole acres may be seen thus ploughed up. Elephants consume an immense quantity of food, and pass the greater part of the day and night in feeding. Like the Whale in the ocean, the Elephant on land is acquainted with, and roams over, wide and extensive tracts. He is extremely particular in always frequenting the freshest and most verdant districts of the forests, and when one district is parched and barren, he will forsake it for years and wander to great distances in quest of better pasture.”

“The Elephant entertains an extraordinary horror of man, and a child can put a hundred of them to flight by passing at a quarter of a mile to windward; and when thus disturbed they go a long way before they halt. It is surprising how soon these sagacious animals are aware of the presence of a hunter in their domains. When one troop has been attacked, all the other Elephants frequenting the district are aware of the fact within two or three days, when they all forsake it, and migrate to distant parts, leaving the hunter no alternative but to inspan his wagons, and remove to fresh ground.

“This constitutes one of the greatest difficulties which a skilful Elephant-hunter encounters. Even in the most remote parts, which may be reckoned the head-quarters of the Elephant, it is only occasionally, and with inconceivable toil and hardship, that the eye of the hunter is cheered by the sight of one. Owing to habits peculiar to himself, the Elephant is more inaccessible and much more rarely seen than any other game quadruped, excepting certain rare Antelopes. They choose for their resort the most lonely and secluded depths of the forest, generally at a very great distance from the rivers and fountains at which they drink. In dry and warm weather they visit these waters nightly; but in cool and cloudy weather they drink only once every third or fourth day. About sundown the Elephant leaves his distant midday haunt, and commences his march towards the fountain, which is probably from twelve to twenty miles distant. This he generally reaches between the hours of nine and midnight, when, having slaked his thirst and cooled his body by spouting large volumes of water over his back with his trunk, he resumes the path to his forest solitudes. Having reached a secluded spot, I have remarked that full-grown bulls lie down on their broadsides about the hour of midnight and sleep for a few hours. The spot which they usually select is an ant-hill, and they lie around it with their backs resting against it. These hills, formed by the white Ants, are from thirty to forty feet in diameter at their base. The mark of the under tusk is always deeply imprinted in the ground, proving that they lie upon their sides. I never remarked that females had thus lain down, and it is only in the more secluded districts that the bulls adopt this practice; for I observed that, in districts where the Elephants were liable to frequent disturbance, they took repose standing on their legs beneath some shady tree. Having slept, they then proceed to feed extensively. Spreading out from one another, and proceeding in a zigzag course, they smash and destroy all the finest trees in the forest which happen to lie in their course. The number of goodly trees which a herd of bull Elephants will thus destroy is utterly incredible. They are extremely capricious, and on coming to a group of five or six trees they break down, not unfrequently, the whole of them, when, having perhaps only tasted one or two small branches, they pass on and continue their wanton work of destruction. I have repeatedly ridden through forests where the trees thus broken down lay so thick across one another that it was almost impossible to ride through the district; and it is in situations such as these that attacking the Elephant is attended with most danger. During the night they will feed in open plains and thickly-wooded districts, but as day dawns, they retire to the densest covers within reach, which nine times in ten are composed of the impracticable wait-a-bit thorns; and here they remain drawn up in a compact herd during the heat of the day. In remote districts, however, and in cool weather, I have known herds to continue pasturing throughout the whole day.”

The African Elephant is not now hunted for domestic purposes, but for the sake of the flesh and of the ivory; and its death is a grand affair for the natives, since it affords opportunity not merely for a feast, but for obtaining fat for internal and external uses. There are various methods of killing them. Pitfalls are most common, and are generally placed in the neighbourhood of a drinking-place, the natives showing great skill in felling trees, so as to turn the Elephants into them. According to Sir Samuel Baker, “the pits are usually about twelve feet long, and three feet broad, by nine deep; these are artfully made, decreasing towards the bottom to the breadth of a foot. The general Elephant route to the drinking-places being blocked up, the animals are diverted by a treacherous path towards the water, the route intersected by numerous pits, all of which are carefully concealed by sticks and straw, the latter being usually strewn with Elephants’ dung, to create a natural effect. Should an Elephant during the night fall through the deceitful surface, his foot becomes jammed in the bottom of the narrow grave, and he labours shoulder-deep, with two feet in the pitfall so fixed that extrication is impossible. Should one animal be thus caught, a sudden panic seizes the rest of the herd, and in their hasty retreat one or more are generally victims to the numerous pits in the vicinity. Once helpless in the pit, they are easily killed with lances.”

The same author also relates that sometimes the Elephant-hunters, or aggageers, of the Hamram tribe, use swords for killing Elephants. They follow the tracks of the animal, “so as to arrive at their game between the hours of 10 and 12 A.M., at which time it is either asleep or extremely listless, and easy to approach. Should they discover the animal asleep, one of the hunters would creep stealthily towards the head, and with one blow sever the trunk while stretched upon the ground; in which case the Elephant would start upon his feet, while the hunters escaped in the confusion of the moment. The trunk severed would cause a loss of blood sufficient to insure the death of the Elephant within about an hour. On the other hand, should the animal be awake upon their arrival, it would be impossible to approach the trunk. In such a case, they would creep up from behind, and give a tremendous cut at the back sinew of the hind leg, about a foot above the heel. Such a blow would disable the Elephant at once, and would render comparatively easy a second cut to the remaining leg. These were the methods adopted by poor hunters, until by the sale of ivory they could purchase Horses for the higher branch of the art. Provided with Horses, the party of hunters should not exceed four. They start before daybreak, and ride slowly throughout the country in search of Elephants, generally keeping along the course of a river until they come upon the tracks where a herd, or a single Elephant, may have drunk during the night. When once upon the track, they follow fast towards the retreating game. The Elephants may be twenty miles distant, but it matters little to the aggageers. At length they discover them, and the hunt begins. The first step is to single out the bull with the largest tusks; this is the commencement of the fight. After a short hunt, the Elephant turns upon his pursuers, who scatter and fly from his headlong charge until he gives up the pursuit; he at length turns to bay when again pressed by the hunters. It is the duty of one man in particular to ride up close to the head of the Elephant, and thus to absorb its attention upon himself. This insures a desperate charge. The greatest coolness and dexterity are then required by the hunter, who, now the hunted, must so adapt the speed of his Horse to the pace of the Elephant that the enraged beast gains in the race, until it almost reaches the tail of the Horse. In this manner the race continues. In the meantime, two hunters gallop up behind the Elephant, unseen by the animal, whose attention is completely directed to the Horse almost within his grasp. With extreme agility, when close to the heels of the Elephant, one of the hunters, while at full speed, springs to the ground with his drawn sword, as his companion seizes the bridle, and with one dexterous two-handed blow he severs the back sinew. He immediately jumps out of the way, and remounts his Horse; but if the blow is successful, the Elephant is hamstrung, and, as it cannot run rapidly on three legs, is easily killed.”

The Fans in the neighbourhood of the Gaboon settlements, according to Mr. Winwood Reade, are in the habit of employing the same mode of capturing Elephants as the natives of India, namely, by enticing them within an enclosure or fence of posts and rails, where they are afterwards killed with cross-bows, spears, and trade-guns.

Elephant shooting, although not unattended by danger, appears to be on the whole accomplished with considerable success, five or six Elephants having been killed occasionally in a very short space of time by one man; and many are the tales of hair-breadth escapes related to us by Gordon Cumming, Tennent, Baker, and others. But it appears the forehead-shot, so much in favour in shooting Indian Elephants, does not answer with the African species, the form of the head and the position of the tusks preventing the bullet from reaching the brain.

“The only successful forehead-shot,” says Sir S. Baker, “that I made at an African Elephant was shortly after my arrival in the Abyssinian territory, on the Settite River; this was in thick, thorny jungle, and an Elephant from the herd charged with such good intention that, had she not been stopped, she must have caught one of the party. When within about five yards of the muzzle of my rifle, I killed her dead by a forehead-shot with a hardened bullet, and we subsequently recovered the bullet in the vertebræ of the neck! This extraordinary penetration led me to suppose that I should always succeed as I had done in Ceylon, and I have frequently stood the charge of an African Elephant until close upon me, determined to give the forehead-shot a fair trial, but I have always failed, except in the instance now mentioned. It must be borne in mind that the Elephant was a female, with a head far inferior in size and solidity to that of the male. The temple-shot, and that behind the ear, are equally fatal in Africa as in Ceylon, provided the hunter can approach within ten or twelve yards; but altogether the hunting is far more difficult, as the character of the country does not admit of an approach sufficiently close to guarantee a successful shot. In the forests of Ceylon, an Elephant can be stalked to within a few paces, and the shot is seldom fired at a greater distance than ten yards. Thus accuracy of aim is insured; but in the open ground of Africa an Elephant can seldom be approached within fifty yards, and should he charge the hunter escape is most difficult. I never found African Elephants in good jungle, except once, and on that occasion I shot five quite as quickly as we should kill them in Ceylon.”

Gordon Cumming gives us the following information as to how the natives cut up an Elephant for food and other purposes. “The rough outer skin is first removed, in large sheets, from the side which lies uppermost. Several coats of an under skin are then met with. This skin is of a tough and pliant nature, and is used by the natives for making water-bags, in which they convey supplies of water from the nearest ‘vley,’ or fountain (which is often ten miles distant), to the Elephants. They remove this inner skin with caution, taking care not to cut it with the assegai; and it is formed into water-bags by gathering the corners and edges, and transfixing the whole on a pointed wand. The flesh is then removed in enormous sheets from the ribs, when the hatchets come into play, with which they chop through, and remove individually, each colossal rib. The bowels are thus laid bare; and in the removal of these the leading men take a lively interest and active part, for it is throughout and around the intestines that the fat of the Elephant is mainly found.

“There are few things which a Bechuana prizes so highly as fat of any description. They will go an amazing distance for a small portion of it. They use it principally in cooking their sun-dried biltong, and they also eat it with their corn. The fat of the Elephant lies in extensive layers and sheets in his inside, and the quantity which is obtained from a full-grown bull, in high condition, is very great. Before it can be obtained, the greater part of the intestines must be removed. To accomplish this, several men eventually enter the immense cavity of his inside, where they continue mining away with their assegais, and handing the fat to their comrades outside until all is bare. While this is transpiring with the sides and intestines, other parties are equally active in removing the skin and flesh from the remaining parts of the carcass.

“The natives have a horrid practice on these occasions of besmearing their bodies, from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot, with the black and clotted gore; and in this anointing they assist one another, each man taking up the fill of both his hands, and spreading it over the back and shoulders of his friend. Throughout the entire proceeding, an incessant and deafening clamour of many voices and confused sounds is maintained, and violent jostling and wrestling are practised by every man, elbowing the breasts and faces of his fellows, all slippery with gore, as he endeavours to force his way to the flesh through the dense intervening ranks, while the sharp and ready assegai gleams in every hand. The angry voices and gory appearances of these naked savages, combined with their excited and frantic gestures and glistening arms, presented an effect so wild and striking that, when I first beheld the scene, I contemplated it in the momentary expectation of beholding one-half of the gathering turn their weapons against the other.

“The trunk and feet of the Elephant are considered a great delicacy, and are baked in holes in the earth, which have been heated by fires burnt in them. The flesh of the Elephant is then cut into strips, varying from six to twenty feet, and about two inches in breadth and thickness. It is then placed on poles, and allowed to dry in the sun for two or three days, after which it is packed into bundles, each man carrying off his share to his wife and family.”

FOSSIL ELEPHANTS AND THEIR ALLIES.

The Proboscidea, represented, as we have already seen, by two species only among living animals, both of which are met with in and near the tropical regions of the Old World, in the fossil state are met with over nearly the whole of the Old World, and of the New; and are divided into three genera--Elephas, Mastodon, and Dinotherium.

The teeth and bones of these creatures found in Europe were assigned in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries to giants, and many are the stories which were commonly reported about them--as, for example, that of the giant of Dauphiné, in the reign of Louis XIV. His remains were discovered by a surgeon, who stated that they were enclosed in an enormous sepulchre covered with a stone slab, bearing the inscription Teutobochus rex; and that in the vicinity there were also found coins or medals, all of which showed the remains to be those of a giant king of the Cimbri, who fought against Marius. However, the original owner of these bones, though not of the coins, was proved to have been an Elephant.

The story of Teutobochus is even excelled by that of another giant, called the giant of Lucerne, whose remains when dug up were examined by a celebrated Professor of Basle, who described them as of human origin, and was skilful enough to put them together so as to resemble a giant no less than twenty-six feet high. For some time the deluded people of Lucerne paid homage to this Elephantine prodigy, until the scales were removed from their eyes by Blumenbach, who pronounced to their astonished senses that the giant, as it lay in state at the Jesuits’ College, was but the skeleton of an Elephant.

The Tertiary or third great period into which the geologists divide the life history of the earth consists of the following divisions:--Eocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, Prehistoric, and Historic, and it is in the Pliocene stage that the Elephant first appears in Europe and America.

The large, straight-tusked Elephant (E. meridionalis), with large grinders composed of thick and coarse plates, is found ranged over the whole of France, Italy, Britain, and Germany in those times, in company with another narrow-toothed species, also with straight tusks, described by Dr. Falconer under the name of Elephas antiquus.

By far the best known and most important of these huge creatures is the far-famed MAMMOTH (Elephas primigenius). This Elephant has been found frozen in Siberian soil beautifully preserved, with the hair and tissues in so good a condition that microscopical sections have been made of them.

The story of finding the first Mammoth imbedded in ice has been often told, but is still of sufficient interest to be related again. A Tungoosian fisherman, named Schumachoff, about the year 1799, was proceeding, as is the custom of fishermen in those parts when fishing proves a failure, along the shores of the Lena in quest of Mammoth tusks, which have been there found in considerable abundance. During his rambles, having gone farther than he had done before, he suddenly came face to face with a huge Mammoth imbedded in clear ice. This extraordinary sight seems to have filled him with astonishment and awe; for instead of at once profiting by the fortunate discovery, he allowed several years to roll on before he summoned courage to approach it closely, although it was his habit to make stealthy journeys occasionally to the object of his wonder. At length, seeing, it is presumed, the terrific monster made no signs of eating him up, and that its tusks would bring him a considerable sum of money, he allowed the hope of gain to overcome his superstitious scruples. He boldly broke the barrier of ice, chopped off the tusks, and left the carcass to the mercy of the Wolves and Bears, who, finding it palatable, soon reduced the huge creature to a skeleton. Some two years afterwards a man of science was on the scent, and although so late in at the death, found a huge skeleton with three legs, the eyes still in the orbits, and the brain uninjured in the skull.

In addition to the peculiarity of the Mammoth having its body covered with long woolly hair, it was also remarkable for the extraordinary formation of its enormous tusks, which curved upwards, forming a spiral.

The eminent Siberian explorer, Dr. Middendorf, in 1843, met with a second instance of the Mammoth being preserved to such a degree that the bulb of the eye is now in the same museum as the skeleton of a Mammoth found by Mr. Adams in 1803. Middendorf found it in latitude 66° 30′ N., between the Obi and the Yenisei near the Arctic Circle. In the same year he also found a young animal of the same species in beds of sand and gravel, at about fifteen feet above the level of the sea, near the river Taimyr, in latitude 75° 15′, associated with marine shells of living Arctic species, as well as with the trunk of the larch. But the fourth, and by far the most important, discovery of a Mammoth is described by an eye-witness of its unearthing, and the record is so valuable in its bearings that we give it at some length. A young Russian engineer, Benkendorf by name, employed by the Government in a survey of the coast of the mouth of the Lena and Indighirka, was despatched up the latter stream, in 1846, in command of a small iron steam-cutter. He writes the following account, which we translate, to a friend in Germany:--

“In 1846 there was uncommon warm weather in the north of Siberia. Already in May unusual rains poured over the moors and bogs, storms shook the earth, and the streams carried not only ice to the sea, but also large tracts of land, thawed by the masses of warm water fed by the southern rains.... We steamed on the first favourable day up the Indighirka; but there were no thoughts of land. We saw around us only a sea of dirty brown water, and knew the river only by the rushing and roaring of the stream. The river rolled against us trees, moss, and large masses of peat, so that it was only with great trouble and danger we could proceed. At the end of the second day, we were only about forty versts [one verst = 1,166½ yards English] up the stream. Some one had to stand with the sounding-rod in hand continually, and the boat received so many shocks that it shuddered to the keel. A wooden vessel would have been smashed. Around us we saw nothing but the flooded land. For eight days we met with the like hindrances, until at last we reached the place where our Yakuts were to have met us. Farther up was a place called Ujandina, whence the people were to have come to us, but they were not there, prevented evidently by the floods. As we had been here in former years we knew the place. But how it had changed! The Indighirka, here about three versts wide, had torn up the land and worn itself a fresh channel, and when the waters sank we saw to our astonishment that the old river-bed had become merely that of an insignificant stream. This allowed me to cut through the soft earth, and we went reconnoitring up the new stream which had worn its way westwards. Afterwards we landed on the new shore, and surveyed the undermining and destructive operation of the wild waters, that carried away with extraordinary rapidity masses of soft peat and loam. It was then that we made a wonderful discovery. The land on which we were treading was moorland, covered thickly with young plants. Many lovely flowers rejoiced the eye in the warm beams of the sun, that shone for twenty-two out of the twenty-four hours. The stream rolled over and tore up the soft wet ground like chaff, so that it was dangerous to go near the brink. While we were all quiet, we suddenly heard under our feet a sudden gurgling and stirring, which betrayed the working of the disturbed water. Suddenly our jäger [hunter], ever on the look-out, called loudly, and pointed to a singular and unshapely object, which rose and sank through the disturbed waters. I had already remarked it, but not given it my attention, considering it only drift wood. Now we all hastened to the spot on the shore, had the boat drawn near, and waited until the mysterious thing should again show itself. Our patience was tried, but at last, a black, horrible, giant-like mass was thrust out of the water, and we beheld a colossal Elephant’s head, armed with mighty tusks, with its long trunk moving in the water, in an unearthly manner, as though seeking for something lost therein. Breathless with astonishment, I beheld the monster hardly twelve feet from me, with his half-open eyes yet showing the whites. It was still in good preservation.

“‘A Mammoth! a Mammoth!’ broke out the Tschermomori, and I shouted ‘Here quickly! chains and ropes!’ I will pass over our preparations for securing the giant animal, whose body the water was trying to bear from us. As the animal again sank we waited for an opportunity to throw the ropes over his neck. This was only accomplished after many efforts. For the rest we had no cause for anxiety, for after examining the ground I satisfied myself that the hind legs of the Mammoth still stuck in the earth, and that the water would work for us to unloosen them. We therefore fastened a rope round his neck, threw a chain round his tusks, that were eight feet long, drove a stake into the ground about twenty feet from the shore, and made chain and rope fast to it. The day went by quicker than I thought for, but still the time seemed long before the animal was secured, as it was only after the lapse of twenty-four hours that the waters had loosened it. But the position of the animal was interesting to me; it was standing in the earth, and not lying on its side or back as a dead animal naturally would, indicating by this the manner of its destruction. The soft peat or marsh land on which he stepped thousands of years ago gave way by the weight of the giant, and he sank as he stood on it feet foremost, incapable of saving himself, and a severe frost came and turned him into ice, as well as the moor which had buried him; the latter, however, grew and flourished, every summer renewing itself; possibly the neighbouring stream had heaped plants and sand over the dead body. God only knows what causes had worked for its preservation; now, however, the stream had once more brought it to the light of day, and I, an ephemera of life compared with this primeval giant, was sent here by heaven just at the right time to welcome him. You can imagine how I jumped for joy.... Picture to yourself an Elephant with a body covered with thick fur, about thirteen feet in height, and fifteen in length, with tusks eight feet long, thick and curving outwards at their ends, a stout trunk of six feet in length, colossal limbs of one foot and a half in thickness, and a tail naked up to the end, which was covered with thick tufty hair. The animal was fat and well grown; death had overtaken him in the fulness of his powers. His parchment-like, large, naked ears lay fearfully turned up over the head; about the shoulders and the back he had stiff hair, about a foot in length, like a mane. The long outer hair was deep brown and coarsely rooted. The top of the head looked so wild, and was so penetrated with pitch, that it resembled the rind of an old oak-tree. On the sides it was cleaner, and under the outer hair there appeared everywhere a wool, very soft, warm, and thick, and of a yellow brown colour. The giant was well protected against the cold. The whole appearance of the animal was fearfully wild and strange. It had not the shape of our present Elephants. As compared with our Indian Elephants, its head was rough, the brain case low and narrow, but the trunk and mouth were much larger. The teeth were very powerful. Our Elephant is an awkward animal, but compared with this Mammoth it is as an Arabian steed to a coarse ugly Dray-horse. I could not divest myself of a feeling of fear as I approached the head; the broken, widely-opened eyes gave the animal an appearance of life, as though it might move in a moment and destroy us with a roar.... The bad smell of the body warned us that it was time to save of it what we could, and the swelling flood, too, bade us hasten. First of all we cut off the tusks, and sent them to the cutter. Then the people tried to hew the head off, but, notwithstanding their good will, this was slow work. As the belly of the animal was cut open the intestines rolled out, and then the smell was so dreadful that I could not overcome my nauseousness, and was obliged to turn away. But I had the stomach separated and brought on one side. It was well filled, and the contents instructive and well preserved. The principal were young shoots of the fir and pine; a quantity of young fir cones also, in a chewed state, were mixed with the mass.”

This most graphic account affords a key for the solution of several problems hitherto unknown. It is clear that the animal must have been buried where it died, and that it was not transported from any place farther up stream to the south, where the climate is comparatively temperate. The presence of fir-spikes in the stomach proves that it fed on the vegetation which is now found at the northern part of the woods, as they join the low, desolate, treeless, moss-covered tundra, in which the body lay buried, a fact that would necessarily involve the conclusion that the climate of Siberia, in those ancient days, differed but slightly from that of the present time. Before this discovery, the food of the Mammoth had not been known by direct evidence. The circumstances under which it was brought to light enable us to see how animal remains could be entombed in the frozen soil without undergoing decomposition, which Baron Cuvier and Dr. Buckland agreed in accounting for by a sudden cataclysm, and Sir Charles Lyell by the hypothesis of their having been swept down by floods from the temperate into the arctic zone. In this particular case, the marsh must have been sufficiently soft to admit of the Mammoth sinking in; while shortly after death the temperature must have been lowered, so as to arrest decomposition, up to the very day on which the body arose under the eyes of M. Benkendorf, in the exceptionally warm year of 1846, when the tundra was thawed to a most unusual depth, and converted into a morass permeable by water. Had any Mammoths been alive in that year, and had they strayed beyond the limits of the woods into the tundra, some would in all human probability have been engulfed; and, when once covered up, the normal cold of winter would suffice to prevent the thaw of the carcases, except in extraordinary seasons, such as that in which this one was discovered. Probably many such warm summers intervened since its death, but as it was preserved from the air, they would not accelerate putrefaction to any great degree. In this way the problem of its entombment and preservation may be solved by an appeal to the present climatal conditions of Siberia. The difficulty of accounting for such vast quantities of remains in the Arctic Ocean, especially in the Läckhow Islands off the mouth of the Lena, is also explained by this discovery, as well as the association of marine shells with the remains of the Mammoth. The body was swept away by the swollen flood of the Indighirka, along with many other waifs and strays, and no doubt by this time is adding to the vast accumulation in the Arctic Sea. It was seen by a mere chance, and must be viewed as an example of the method by which animal remains are swept seaward. In all probability, the frozen morass in which it was discovered is as full of Mammoths as the peat-bogs of Ireland are of Irish Elk, and have been the main source from which the Arctic rivers have obtained their supply of animal remains. The remains of the Mammoth are met with in incredible numbers in the river deposits of Middle and Northern Europe, as well as in those of North America, showing that in ancient times the animal ranged over a tract of land extending from the Mediterranean to the Arctic Sea, and from Behring Strait to the Gulf of Mexico. It is also met with in the caves in Middle Europe, having been dragged into them by the Hyænas, or having fallen a prey to the ancient hunter. We owe, indeed, to the skill of the latter an incisive sketch of the animal as he appeared to the inhabitants of Auvergne, in the remote geological period known as Pleistocene; the long, hairy mane, and spirally-curved tusks, are faithfully depicted by the artist, and, were it not for the strange chance which has preserved to us the whole animal in the frozen ice-cliffs of Siberia, would have seemed to us merely imaginative details. In another example, also from the caves of Auvergne, the Mammoth is represented with his mouth open, and his trunk lifted up in the attitude of charging.

Remains of other extinct species of Elephants are found; one, which is of exceedingly small stature, standing not much higher than from two and a half to three feet, has been discovered in the bone-caves of Malta. The genus MASTODON, which in many respects resembles the true Elephants, differs from them in the formation of the teeth, the grinders being much simpler, more tubercular, and with crowns free from cement. In most cases, also, there were two small tusks in the lower jaw, as well as those in the upper. In Europe they appear in the Miocene and Pliocene strata, and in America they survived into the Pleistocene. The most extraordinary-looking, perhaps, of the fossil Proboscidea, and that furthest removed from the living Elephants, is the DINOTHERIUM, of the Miocene age. It possessed no tusks in the upper jaw, but its lower jaw was armed with two long curved tusks, projecting downwards. It probably possessed the habits of the Elephant, and these tusks may have been used for uprooting trees, or hooking down boughs, so as to obtain the leaves and shoots for food.

W. BOYD DAWKINS. H. W. OAKLEY.

ORDER HYRACOIDEA (CONIES).

What is the Coney?--Mention in the Bible--General Appearance--Real Place--Range--Varieties--Coney of the Bible--Cape Coney--Ashkoko of Abyssinia--Mr. Winwood Reade’s Account of the Habits of the Cape Coney--Skull, Dentition, Ribs, &c.

The order of animals known to naturalists as Hyracoidea (derived from the Greek ὕραξ, a Shrew, and εἶδος, form) contains but one genus, called Hyrax. Belonging to this genus are but two or three species of small animals, which, however, are of considerable interest, both from their peculiar organisation, and from their mention four times in the Bible under the name of Shaphan, improperly translated Coney, which has given rise to considerable controversy, as to what animal was meant. Some persons considered, and naturally enough, that Coney meant nothing more or less than the Rabbit; but now no doubt exists, as has been shown from its characters and habits, that the animal referred to is the Daman, or Hyrax syriacus.

The following are the passages literally rendered, in which the Hyrax is mentioned in the Bible: “Likewise the Coney, because he cheweth the cud, and divideth not the hoof; he shall be unclean unto you” (Leviticus xi. 5). “But these ye shall not eat of them that chew the cud, and of them that divide and cleave the hoof only; the Camel, nor the Hare, nor the Coney; for they chew the cud, but divide not the hoof; therefore they shall be unclean unto you” (Deuteronomy xiv. 7). “The high mountains are for the Goats; the rocks are a refuge for the Conies” (Psalms civ. 18). “The Conies are but a feeble folk, yet make they their houses in the rocks” (Proverbs xxx. 26). With regard to the first passage, although the Hyrax certainly does not chew the cud, the peculiar way in which it moves its jaws, as it sits perched in a ruminating manner, so to speak, on some ledge of rock, would naturally suggest to the ignorant that it really was chewing the cud. In the third quotation, we read “the rocks are a refuge for the Conies.” This exactly suits the Hyrax, which is always found inhabiting rocky situations. The last extract also agrees with the known habits of the Hyrax. Here it is alluded to as being one of the four animals on earth who are small, but very wise. These four are the Ant, the Locust, the Spider, and the Coney. All travellers who have noticed the Hyrax are agreed that it is a most wary and crafty animal, and that the utmost caution is required even to obtain a view of it; and to kill one requires a most skilful and practised sportsman.

The Hyrax is a little animal clothed with a brownish fur, of about the size of an ordinary Rabbit, to which, indeed, it has some resemblance. It is allied to the Rhinoceros, the Tapir, and Rodents; but the whole form of the skeleton approaches more nearly to that of the two former than it does to any known species of the latter. Linnæus, however, and other authors, classed it with the Rodents; but Cuvier, seeing that it more nearly approached the characters of the old group of animals called Pachydermata (thick-skinned animals), placed it with them. Now, however, it is assigned by Prof. Huxley to an order of its own named Hyracoidea; but it still is a doubtful question as to what should be done with it.

Of the several animals forming the genus, one, the Hyrax syriacus, the Coney of the Bible, is found from the coast of the Red Sea northwards through Syria, by Lebanon, and southwards into Arabia and Ethiopia. Another species, Hyrax capensis, the Cape Coney, is found at the Cape and east coast of Africa, extending from Abyssinia down the east coast southwards. Two other species are described from West Africa; but both probably belong to one genus.

Bruce, in his “Travels in Abyssinia,” tells us that the Ashkoko, which is understood to be the same as the Daman (Hyrax syriacus), is found in Ethiopia, in the caverns of the rocks, and under the large stones in the Mountain of the Sun, behind the queen’s palace at Koscam. He also informs us that it is of common occurrence in many other rocky places of Abyssinia, and he says that it does not make holes like Rabbits or Rats, because its toes are not adapted for so doing, and that it is a very timid and gentle creature, stealing along a few paces, and then stopping, as if to see that the coast is clear.

Bruce also states that apparently the same species inhabits Mount Libanus, and the rocks of Cape Mohammed, which divides the Elanitic from the Heroopolitic Gulf, or Gulf of Suez from that of Akabah, and that the only difference he saw was in the greater size and fatness of those of the Mountain of the Sun.

“The Hyrax capensis,” writes Mr. Reade, “is found living at the Cape of Good Hope, inhabiting the hollows and caves of the rocks, both on the hill-sides and on the sea shore, a little above high-water mark. It seems to live in families, and in its wild state is remarkably shy. In the cold weather it is fond of coming out of its hole and warming itself in the sun on the side of a rock, and in summer it enjoys the breeze on the top of the hills, but in both instances, as well as when it feeds, a sentinel is always placed on the look-out, generally an old male, which gives notice of any approach of danger by a long shrill cry.

“Its principal food is the young tops of shrubs, especially those which are aromatic, but it also eats herbs, grass, and the tops of flowers. To eat it tastes much like a Rabbit. It is recorded that one gentleman caught two young ones which he kept for some time. They became very tame, and as they were allowed the run of the house would follow him about, jump on to his lap, or creep into his bed for the sake of the warmth. One brought home by Mr. Hennah would also run inquisitively about the cabins, climbing up and examining every person and thing, but startled by any noise, it would run away and hide itself. When shut up for long, it became savage and snarled and tried to bite at everything that came in its way. This animal, both when wild as well as when tame, is very cleanly in its habits. From its faintly crying in its sleep it may be supposed that it dreams. It has also been heard to chew its food at night. When tame it will eat a variety of things, the leaves of plants, bruised Indian corn, raw potatoes, bread, and onions, and will greedily lick up salt. The one brought home by Mr. Hennah was very sensible of the cold, for when a candle was placed near its cage, it would come as close as possible to the bars, and sit still to receive as much warmth as it could. I am inclined to think that the female does not produce more than two young ones at a time, from having observed in several instances but two following the old ones. Its name at the Cape is the Dasse, which is, I believe, the Dutch for a Badger.”

In structure, the skull of the Hyrax approaches more nearly to that of the Ungulata (animals with hoofs), especially to that of the Rhinoceros, than it does to that of any of the Rodents. The nose of the Hyrax, however, not having any horn to support, the nasal bones are not thickened, as they are in the Rhinoceros. There is a marked distinction between the maxillary, or upper jaw-bones of the Hyrax and those of the Rodents, the extent of the former being much smaller. In the former, also, there are two parietal bones, as compared with one in the latter. The joint, or condyle of the lower jaw, differs from that of the Rodents, in which it is compressed longitudinally, while in the Hyrax it is compressed transversely, as in the Ungulata, being also applied to a plane surface of the temporal bone, whereby a motion more or less horizontal is permitted. The Hyrax has no canine teeth. The upper incisors resemble those of Rabbits and Hares in number, which are four in the adult, and those of Rodents generally in the possession of persistent pulps. In shape they approach more to the form of the canines of the Hippopotamus by terminating in a point. The number of lower incisors is also four, and they are procumbent somewhat like those of the Hog. The grinders, both in number and form, resemble those of the Rhinoceros.

With regard to the number of ribs, the Hyrax approaches nearer to the Ungulata and Proboscidea than it does to the Rodents. It departs from the former in the number of the vertebræ and form of the pelvis; but again approaches them in the form of the femora (thigh bones), and also in the formation of the feet; the toes are four in front and three behind, as in the Tapir, and they are supplied with hoofs, or rounded hoof-like nails. They are without collar-bones (clavicles). The body of the Hyrax is covered with thick hair, which is here and there beset with bristles, and the tail is represented by a mere tubercle. No remains of the Hyrax have yet been found in a fossil state.

W. BOYD DAWKINS. H. W. OAKLEY.

ORDER UNGULATA (HOOFED QUADRUPEDS).