Part 12

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The LONGSHANKS (Totani) constitute a group possessing light slender bodies, moderately long necks, and small heads. The wings are long and pointed, with the first quill exceeding the rest in length; the short tail is composed of twelve feathers, and is either graduated, wedge-like, or rounded at its extremity. The beak is either as long as, or longer than, the head, and furnished with a pointed tip; this difference in the construction of the bill enables these birds to seize their food among gravel or stones on the shores of lakes and rivers, or on the coast, instead of seeking it by probing soft sand and mud. The foot is variously formed, being in some instances high and thin, and in others short and powerful; the toes are three or four in number. The short compact plumage, which is moulted twice in the year, is of sombre hue; male and female are almost alike, both in their coloration and size.

These birds principally frequent the northern portions of the globe, and from thence wander forth into warmer latitudes, where they not only live, but breed. River-banks, marshes, and the shores of fresh-water lakes, are their usual haunts; whilst some few occupy the sea-coast, and others frequent moist woods. During the winter they associate with many varieties of their feathered brethren, whose society they appear to prefer to that of their own species. They walk well, fly rapidly and easily, and for the most part dive with facility, remaining under water for a considerable time, and coming up at a distance from the place where they went down. While thus progressing they are supposed to move by the agency of their wings. Under ordinary circumstances, however, they merely stand while fishing, keeping only their head and neck below the surface as they explore the ground beneath. In all the various species the voice is high, flute-like, and resonant. The food of the Totani consists of insects, worms, small molluscs, and fishes, and is obtained, not by probing the earth, a process to which their hard sharp bill is not adapted, but from the surface of the ground, or from amongst stones and gravel. Shortly after the snow has melted, these birds commence the duties attendant on incubation, and resort to their favourite fresh-water marshes or moist woods for the purpose of breeding. The nest, which is usually situated on the ground among the grass, is a mere depression, made smooth and neat within, and lined with grass or any similar materials. In some instances, however, the Totani build upon low trees, stones, or branches, either making a small abode for themselves with moss and other vegetable matter, or using a deserted nest as a repository for their young family. The large pear-shaped eggs are four in number, and have an olive-green shell, marked with brownish grey. The female alone broods, whilst her mate busies himself in anxious endeavours to protect her and her charge by flying around with troubled cries should they be disturbed. The young can leave the nest as soon as they quit the shell, and, if alarmed, at once conceal themselves with much adroitness upon the ground or in the grass. When fledged they usually fly about to very considerable distances over the country, until the season arrives for commencing their winter migration.

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The TRUE SANDPIPERS (Actitis) are small, delicately-formed birds, with straight, flexible, but hard-tipped beaks; the moderate-sized, crescent-shaped wing is rather pointed at its extremity; and the long graduated tail composed of twelve feathers. The soft compact plumage is peculiar both in its coloration and markings, and varies but little at different seasons. The females are somewhat smaller than their mates.

THE COMMON SANDPIPER.

The COMMON SANDPIPER (Actitis hypoleucos) is of a yellow-brown on the upper portion of the body, shaded with green and purple, and marked with black. The feathers on the side of the crop are of a brownish hue, with shafts and oval spots of a deeper shade. Those on the under side are white; the primaries are brownish black, delicately bordered with whitish grey towards the tips, and from the third quill decorated with white spots, which gradually increase in size as they approach the body. The lower secondaries are pale blackish brown, with white roots and tips; the centre tail-feathers brownish grey, shafted with black, and spotted and edged with reddish yellow; the rest white, more or less striped with black. The eye is brown; the beak greyish black, with lighter base, and the foot lead-grey. The length of this species is from seven inches and three-quarters to eight inches, and from twelve inches and a half to thirteen inches broad. The wing measures four inches, and the tail two inches and a half.

The Common Sandpipers are abundantly met with on all the streams, lakes, and sea-coasts of the northern portions of both hemispheres, and both live and breed in the temperate latitudes, remaining in the latter from one year to another, while such as occupy the colder regions wander as far as Southern Europe and Northern Africa. Great Britain and Ireland are regularly visited during the summer by these birds, but they do not, we believe, resort to the Orkney or Shetland Isles. A correspondent, quoted by Yarrell, who writes from the vicinity of Clitheroe, says, "The Common Sandpiper breeds with us, and this year I started an old one from her nest at the root of a fir-tree. She screamed out and rolled about in such a manner, and seemed so completely disabled, that although perfectly aware that her intention was to allure me from her nest, I could not resist my inclination to pursue her, and in consequence I had great difficulty in finding the nest again. It was built of a few dried leaves of a Weymouth pine, and contained three young ones just hatched, and an egg through the shell of which the bill of the young chick was just making its way; yet, young as they were, on my taking out the egg to examine it, the little things, which could not have been out of their shells more than an hour or two, set off out of the nest with as much celerity as if they had been running about for a fortnight."

The Common Sandpipers appear in Central Europe towards the middle of April or beginning of May, and by July have reared their young, and commenced flying about the country previous to leaving it, which they do about the second or third week in September. Their migrations are carried on in small parties of from six to twenty individuals, and take place at night; the birds descending, when day breaks, to seek for food upon a river-bank or similar locality, and usually sleeping for a few hours at noon. Should the chosen spot prove attractive, it is not uncommon for these parties to remain for several days before resuming their journey. Sandy localities, covered with bushes or reeds, are the favourite resorts of these birds; the latter affording a safe retreat in case of danger or alarm, to which their timid, cautious disposition renders them peculiarly susceptible. Naumann mentions that a garden-seat placed about four feet above the surface of a pond in his garden, and thickly overhung with branches and surrounded by bushes, was regularly selected as a sleeping-place by all the Sandpipers that crossed his grounds during their migrations. The movements of this species are in many respects unlike others of its kind; it stands erect, walks with an active tripping step, and constantly whips its tail while in motion. The flight is swift and easy, but, unlike that of most other Sandpipers, is seldom carried on at any great height in the air, the bird usually sweeping so close over the surface of the water as almost to wet its wings; only when finally quitting a spot does it rise far from the earth, and rapidly seeks another hunting ground. If much alarmed, it betakes itself to the water, and either swims or dives to a safe distance from the place of danger. Although remarkably shy, this species appears readily to distinguish those who are likely to molest it; and exhibits such adroitness in seeking concealment as frequently to escape even from the clutches of a Sparrow-hawk. It seldom associates with other shore birds; and the breeding season once over, the pairs usually separate, and, like their companions, go their own way, only joining their fellows if the chosen spot be favourable for food, without any reference to each other's presence. As the season for incubation approaches, the male birds exhibit much excitement, and display themselves to the greatest advantage, darting through the air in zigzag lines, and trilling forth their call in the hope of attracting the attention of their desired mates. This call, which commences in a low tone, gradually swelling and dying away, is exchanged at other times for a high, clear, resonant, piping note. The nest is formed of twigs, reeds, stubble, or dry leaves, and is placed at a safe distance from the water, beneath a sheltering shrub or bush. The pear-shaped eggs vary somewhat in size and form, and have a delicate, glossy, reddish yellow shell, marked and spotted with various shades of brown. Both sexes brood, and exhibit great uneasiness when disturbed; should they be deprived of an egg they at once desert their post. The young are hatched in about a fortnight, but remain a little longer under the mother's wing, after which they are led forth to seek their own food, and in four weeks are fully fledged and self dependent. The parents display much anxiety for the safety of their little family, and, if molested, express their alarm by loud cries; whilst the young at once hurry to a place of concealment, and remain so quiet as to render their discovery almost impossible without the aid of a dog. Insects, larvæ, and worms form the usual fare of the Common Sandpipers, and in search of these they often display most amusing dexterity, gently approaching such active-winged prey as flies and gnats, with every sign of extreme caution, and then snapping up the desired morsels by an almost unerring stroke.

THE GREENSHANK.

The GREENSHANK (Glottis chloropus) represents a group distinguished by their long, slender, hard beak, which curves decidedly upwards, and their high green feet, which have the toes connected by a skin. The species we have selected as a type of the rest is the largest of all, being from twelve to thirteen inches long, and from twenty-one and a half to twenty-two inches across the wings. The wing measures seven and the tail three inches. The feathers on the upper portions of the body are black, edged with white; the lower back, rump, and under side are pure white as far as the breast, which is striped and spotted with black; the tail is grey in the centre, and spotted white and black at its sides. During the autumn the head, nape, and sides of the throat are striped greyish-black and white, and the mantle-feathers deep grey, spotted and shafted with black, and edged with white; those on the lower web and crop are striped and shafted with black. The eye is brown, the beak blackish green, and the foot greyish green.

The Greenshank principally inhabits the northern portions of the Eastern Hemisphere, and from thence wanders as far as India, Southern China, and Africa. In Australia these birds are not seen, and it is still doubtful whether they visit the American continent. In some parts of Siberia they are remarkably numerous during the summer months. Such of this species as appear in Central Europe arrive about the end of July, and wander about over the face of the country till August or September, when they commence leaving in order to winter further south. In April and May they return to the north, travelling by night, and only rarely performing even a short part of the journey during the day. The Greenshank is a summer visitor to Great Britain, and is principally seen during its spring and autumnal migrations. "In the Hebrides," says Macgillivray, "it is met with in early spring, and generally departs in October, although I have observed individuals there in November. Previous to the commencement of the breeding season, and after the young are fledged, it resorts to the shores of the sea, frequenting pools of brackish water at the head of the sand-fords, and the shallow margins of bays and creeks. Its habits are very similar to those of the Redshank, with which it associates in autumn. It is extremely shy and vigilant, insomuch that we can very seldom shoot it unless after it has deposited its eggs. Many individuals remain during the summer, when they are to be found by the lakes in the interior; indeed, the number of them in Uist, Harris, and Lewis is astonishing. At that season it is very easily discovered, for when you are perhaps more than a quarter of a mile distant it rises into the air with clamorous cries, alarming all the birds in its neighbourhood, flies round the place of its nest, now wheeling off to a distance, again advancing towards you, and at intervals alighting by the edge of the lake, when it continues its cries, vibrating its body all the while. I once found a nest of this bird in the Island of Harris. It was at a considerable distance from the water, and consisted of a few fragments of heath and some blades of grass, placed in a hollow cavity scraped in the turf, in an exposed place. The nest, in fact, resembled that of the Golden Plover, the Curlew, or the Lapwing. The eggs, placed with their narrow ends together, were four in number, pyriform, larger than those of the Lapwing, and smaller than those of the Golden Plover, equally pointed with the latter, but proportionately broader, and more rounded at the larger end than either."

The high clear cry of this bird has been compared by Yarrell to the sound of the syllables "chio, chio." Insects, larvæ, young frogs, and small fishes are all devoured by the Greenshank; but it is at present undecided as to what may be regarded as its principal means of subsistence, nor are we much better informed concerning its habits during the period of incubation, except that it breeds in the north-eastern portions of the globe, and forms a slight nest of blades of grass, upon a green knoll, usually beneath the shelter of a tree. The four large eggs are deposited in June, and have a pale greenish yellow shell, marked with brownish grey and reddish brown spots of various sizes. The eggs of the Greenshank are regarded as among the greatest rarities of oological collections.

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The GODWITS (Limosa) are recognisable by their large powerful body, moderate-sized neck, and small head. The high slender foot is four-toed, and the wing long and pointed, with the first quill longer than the rest; the short, somewhat rounded tail, is composed of twelve feathers. The smooth thick plumage is of very uniform hue, and varies according to the season of the year. The birds of this sub-family have some resemblance to the Snipes, and also to the Tringæ; but their legs are longer and somewhat stouter in proportion to their size. The chief difference, however, is in the bill, which in birds that as far as regards their haunts are such close neighbours, is the most important. The beak of the Godwits is very long, soft, and flexible; its whole length is rather compressed, and triangular at the base, depressed in the rest of the length, and dilated and obtuse at the tip. It has been described as, "not a snapping bill, nor a boring bill, neither is it a scooping bill, nor a dabbling bill; indeed, it is difficult to find a single epithet descriptive of the function it performs, or rather of the manner in which it performs its functions. It is not shovelling or scooping, for these birds do not remove from its place the sludge and sediment of the water among which they seek their food; and they do not dabble and wash the mud as Ducks do, till they find the substance of which they are in quest. 'Poking' is the nearest epithet, but does not express the action exactly, as they 'try about' and select their food by the sense of touch, and not by sight." These Godwits are more of a wading habit than the Snipes, yet their food is not found in the water, but in the ooze; and if the ooze is soft enough to be penetrated by the bill, the fact of its being with or without a small stratum of water over it is of little consequence. Their food consists chiefly of mud-worms, mud-insects, and mud-larvæ, and the places which they frequent are the localities in which these most abound. The banks of the eddies of slow-running streams, or the accumulation of sludge that is left bare in the estuaries and creeks upon the shores of low rich land, on the ebbing of the tide, and especially the streams of mud from the richer ground into the pools of fens, are the favourite resorts of these birds. They breed in the fens, at a considerable distance inland, if the ground is suitable, but they descend nearer to the sea in winter. In their inland haunts they hide themselves during the heat of the day among the long grass where they have their nests; but when near the sea, their resting-time varies with that at which the tide leaves their feeding-places in the best condition. Godwits run very fast, and make their escape to a considerable distance before taking wing, at which time they utter a very loud, harsh, and somewhat bleating note. These birds were formerly much more common with us than they are now, and were regarded by our forefathers as the daintiest dish in England. They were sometimes valued as high as four nobles the dozen, after they had been fattened for the market on bread and milk.

THE RED OR BAR-TAILED GODWIT.

The RED or BAR-TAILED GODWIT (Limosa rufa) is on the crown and nape of a light rust-red, striped with brown. The feathers on the back and shoulders are black, spotted and edged with rust-red; those of the wing-covers grey with white borders. The rump is white, spotted with brown. The eyebrows, throat, sides of neck, and lower parts of the body are bright, dark rust-red; the sides of the breast and lower tail-covers spotted with black. The quills are black, veined with white; and the tail grey, striped with white. The eye is brown, the beak reddish, tipped with blackish grey, and the foot black. In the plumage of the female all these colours are duller. During the autumn the coat is principally of a greyish shade, the upper portions of the body being grey, spotted with blackish brown; the centre of the beak, rump, and lower tail-covers are white. This species is fifteen inches and a half long and twenty-six broad; the wing measures two inches, and the tail two inches and three-quarters.

Great numbers of these birds visit England both during their spring and autumnal migrations, but they have never been known to breed in our island, though some few remain throughout the winter. In Holland and the level parts of France they are far more common, and are annually killed in great numbers for the London market. The Red Godwits are usually met with in small parties, and generally occupy the muddy banks of river mouths or the oozy shores of sea inlets, as such spots afford a rich supply of the worms, small molluscs, and aquatic animals upon which they subsist. In April the males acquire their full beauty of plumage, and at once retire as far north as Iceland, Lapland, and Sweden to breed. Upon the wing their movements are powerful, though not very rapid. If disturbed they utter a cry somewhat resembling the bleat of a goat. We are almost entirely without reliable particulars respecting the incubation of this bird.

THE BLACK-WINGED STILT.

The BLACK-WINGED STILT (Hypsibates himantopus, or Himantopus melanopterus) has a small slight body, slender neck, moderate-sized head, and a long, weak, straight bill, which is broad and soft at its base, rounded at the culmen, and curved at its slender tip; the high, weak, and unusually long foot is unfeathered, and furnished with three toes; these are connected by a short skin, and armed with small, slender, sharp claws. The long, pointed wings have the first quill very considerably longer than the rest; the medium-sized tail is composed of twelve feathers. The short compact plumage, which is of an almost fur-like texture on the under side, varies much in appearance, according to the season or age of the bird. In spring, the back of the head, the nape, and a narrow stripe across the mantle are black, the latter is shaded with green; the tail is ash-grey; and the rest of the plumage white, delicately tinted with rose-red on the fore parts of the body. In the female the hues are less clearly defined, and the white less pure; the tail is lustreless, and the dark stripe on the nape paler but broader than in the male bird. In winter the head and nape are of a greyish shade. The young have the under side greyish white, the nape grey marked with white, and the shoulder-feathers grey. In all the eye is of a beautiful carmine-red; the beak black, and the foot pale carmine or rose-red. This species is fourteen inches and a half long, and twenty-seven broad; the wing measures nine and the tail three inches.

The Black-winged Stilt inhabits Southern and South-eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Northern Africa; and during the course of its migrations visits India, the region of the large salt lakes in Central Asia, and the countries watered by the Upper Nile. In Southern Russia and Egypt it is remarkably numerous, and remains throughout the entire year; in Hungary it is also extremely common; whilst in Spain, Greece, and Southern Italy it only appears when journeying to or from its winter quarters. Such of these birds as occupy Southern Europe usually frequent the vicinity of extensive lakes, and lead a most retired life; but in Egypt, on the contrary, flocks numbering some two hundred or three hundred individuals, venture boldly into and about the villages, wherever small pieces of water are to be found, and allow a man to approach them within a few paces without any demonstration of alarm. These winter guests remain almost stationary throughout the cold season, and during that time become very fat. Towards April most of the flock disappear, while some few remain to breed. In England, according to Yarrell, this bird is an accidental though not unfrequent visitor. "On the 9th of June, 1822," says the Rev. R. Lubbock, "I was returning in the evening from fishing upon Hickling Broad, in Norfolk, when a bird of this species flew past the boat within thirty yards. The legs were extended behind, even more in proportion than those of a Heron; the wings were very much arched; the flight vigorous and regular. The colour and the length of limb made me guess what it must be. We searched for it early next morning, and found it precisely in the same place as the evening before, but it was standing in a shallow pool of water, mid-leg deep, apparently snapping at the insects as they buzzed around it."

Although the Black-winged Stilts cannot be regarded as sea-birds, they prefer salt water, and occasionally appear on the actual coast, in company with several of its regular occupants. Salt lakes and ponds are, however, their favourite resorts, except during the breeding season, when they seek the vicinity of fresh or brackish water. These birds are eminently social in their habits, and usually live in small companies of from six to twelve individuals, only keeping apart in pairs during the period of incubation, and again assembling, but in large flocks, throughout the winter months. Insects of various kinds, principally flies, gnats, beetles, and larvæ, form their principal means of subsistence, and these they seize with equal address from the surface of the water, in the air, or from amidst the mud and slime. In Egypt this species breeds in April, and in May constructs a careless nest of coarse grass. Wilson tells us that a nearly-allied bird inhabiting America merely places a bed of dry grass upon the marshy ground to receive the eggs when first deposited, but afterwards constructs a regular nest of a variety of dry materials, which are heaped together till they frequently form a mass weighing two or three pounds. The eggs, which are generally four in number, resemble those of the Peewit in form and size, but have a far more delicate shell, of a brownish, olive, or greenish yellow, marked with grey and reddish brown spots of various shapes and sizes, which are most thickly strewn over the broad end. In Hungary the flesh of the Black-winged Stilt is eaten during the winter, but even at that season is not very palatable.

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The SCOOPING AVOCETS (Recurvirostræ) are recognisable by their powerful body, moderately long, thin neck, large head, and long slender beak, grooved on its sides to the middle, and compressed towards its acute tip, which is curved either upwards or downwards. The margins are sharp and entire, the bill hard and smooth. The long slender tarsi are covered with scales; and the very long powerful foot furnished with four toes; the latter are sometimes united by a web in front, the hind toe being either extremely short or undeveloped. The long, pointed wings have the first quill longer than the rest. The short rounded tail is composed of twelve feathers. The plumage of the back is close and compact, and that of the under side of downy texture. These birds inhabit most countries of our globe, and frequent the swampy margins of rivers, or salt marshes, where they are usually seen in pools of shallow water, fluttering their wings, and shaking their half-bent legs, an action which causes them to appear as if they would tumble over, while at the same time they utter a sharp note like the syllable "click" often repeated. Occasionally they are seen collected in small groups, on open downs covered with grasses and other kinds of vegetation, when, if alarmed, they frequently run off in a straight line, or fly very close to the ground. Their mode of feeding is by scooping, or as it were beating the soft soil with their flat upturned bill; and when thus engaged they are generally seen wading up to their breasts in the pools left by the receding tide. They never swim voluntarily, although furnished with feet so extensively palmated as to have induced the early systematists to place them among the swimming birds; nevertheless, this structure is an admirable provision to enable them to traverse the soft and yielding mud in which they find their food. The nest is generally formed of dry grasses, seaweeds, and small twigs, heaped up to the thickness of several inches, and placed among thick tufts of grass, in the neighbourhood of shallow water. The eggs are four in number.

THE SCOOPING AVOCET.

The SCOOPING AVOCET (Recurvirostra avocetta) is black upon the top of the head, nape, shoulders, and a large portion of the wings; the rest of the latter and the remainder of the entire plumage is white. The eye is reddish brown, the beak black, and the foot greyish blue. In the female, these colours are less distinct; in the young the black feathers have a brownish shade, and those on the wings are edged with reddish grey. The upcurved bill of this bird is most remarkable, and entirely unsuited to probe the ground or break the shell of ordinary-sized molluscs. The slightest frost, therefore, drives the Avocet to the oozy muddy flats of estuaries, bays, and similar situations, where it can patter about with its wide-webbed feet, and gather small crustaceans and sea-worms. Those who have seen a Stork or a Crane with a frog at the tip of its long mandibles, and watched it, as, with an upward movement of the head, it dropped the victim into its throat, will have a good idea of the action of the Avocet when it has captured a small shrimp, a marine insect, or any other of the objects upon which it lives, and at once perceive that, with such a peculiarly-formed beak, it could not feed in any other manner. The Scooping Avocets are numerously met with throughout the Eastern Hemisphere, even as far south as the Cape of Good Hope; in Central Europe they appear in April, and commence leaving again about September. A century ago, before the English fens were drained, they were common in the marshes of Norfolk and Lincolnshire; but are now rarely seen. These birds only frequent the immediate vicinity of salt water, and are almost exclusively met with on shallow muddy sea-coasts, or the slimy banks of brackish lakes. When occupying the shores, they follow the advance and recess of the tide in search of food, and are often seen half a mile out upon the sands when the waves have retired. Among the many varieties of sea-birds that frequent the sea-shore, the Scooping Avocets are always conspicuous, as they move slowly along, with body erect and slender neck gracefully curved, or fly rapidly through the air, with broadly-flapping wings, and their long legs stretched directly out. In the water they exhibit great skill, and frequently venture out to a very considerable depth. The piping note uttered by this species has a somewhat melancholy but not unpleasing tone, and is replaced during the period of incubation by a plaintive call, which is constantly and rapidly repeated. In disposition the Avocets are unsocial, and only rarely keep company with their feathered companions; whilst towards man they exhibit much timidity, and considerable intelligence in discerning such persons as are likely to prove dangerous. At the commencement of the season for incubation, the pairs seek a suitable spot whereon to breed, and usually prefer grass-covered flats, or fields, in the immediate vicinity of the sea. The nest is a mere hollow, slightly lined with dry blades of grass, or fibres, and contains from two to four pear-shaped eggs, about as large as those of the Peewit, with a thin, lustreless, greenish yellow shell, more or less marked with blackish grey or violet spots. Both sexes brood, and tend the young (which are hatched in about eighteen days) with great affection, leading them at first about the fields, then near large pools, and only venturing with them to the open sea when they begin to use their wings.

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The CURLEWS (Numenii) are very beautifully-formed birds, with a slender body, long thin neck, small head, and a very long, slightly-curved, and soft beak, which is broad at its base, and horny at its tip. The upper mandible is a trifle longer than, and bends somewhat over, the lower portion of the bill; the slender, high, broad-soled feet are bare, and furnished with four toes, connected by a decided web; the wings are long and pointed, with the first quill longer than the rest; the moderate-sized tail is composed of twelve feathers. The close compact plumage does not vary in the sexes, or at different seasons of the year. The members of this group include about a dozen species, and are met with in almost every portion of the globe.