CHAPTER XII.. Fossil Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals.

FOSSIL FISHES, AMPHIBIANS, REPTILES, BIRDS, AND MAMMALS.

=Vertebrates.--=

The above-named classes of animals are distinguished from those previously dealt with, by the presence of a vertebral column. The vertebral axis may be either cartilaginous as in some fishes, or bony as in the greater number of animals belonging to this sub-kingdom.

=Chordata.--=

LINKS BETWEEN THE INVERTEBRATES AND FISHES.--The curious little ascidians or "sea-squirts," belonging to the group Tunicata, are held by some authorities to be the degenerate descendants of a free-swimming animal having a complete notochord and nerve-tube, structures which are now only seen in the tails of their tadpole-like larvae. The fully developed tunicate is generally sessile and provided with a thick outer coat (tunic) and muscular inner lining. This outer coat in some forms, as Leptoclinum, is strengthened with tiny calcareous spicules, and these are sometimes found in the fossil state in Cainozoic clays, as well as in some of the calcareous deep-sea oozes. The little stellate spicules of Leptoclinum are abundant in the Balcombian clays of Mornington, Victoria.

Another primitive form with a notochord is the Lancelet, but this, having no hard parts, is not found in the fossil state.

=Primitive Types of Fishes.--=

FISHES.--The remains of fishes are naturally more abundant in the fossil condition, owing to their aquatic habits, than those of other vertebrates. The earliest fishes were probably entirely cartilaginous, and some have left only a mere trace or impression on the rocks in which they were embedded. These primitive fishes have no lower jaw, and are without paired limbs. They are sometimes placed in a class by themselves (AGNATHA). The orders of this primitive fish series as represented in Australasia are the Osteostraci ("bony shells"), of which the remains of the Cephalaspis-like head-shield of Thyestes has been found in the Silurian of N.E. Gippsland, Victoria (Fig. 122); and the Antiarchi, with its many-plated cuirass, armoured body-appendages, internal bony tissue, and coarsely tuberculated exterior, as seen in Asterolepis australis, a fossil occasionally found in the Middle Devonian Limestone of Buchan, Gippsland.

=True Fishes.--Devonian.--=

Of the true fishes (Pisces), the Elasmobranchii ("slit-gills"), a sub-class to which the modern sharks belong, are represented in the Devonian series by the paired spines of a form resembling Climatius, found both in Victoria and New South Wales. Remains of Dipnoi ("double-breather" or lung-fishes) occur in the Devonian of Barker Gorge, Western Australia, represented by a new species allied to Coccosteus ("berry-bone" fish); and in a bed of the same age at the Murrumbidgee River, New South Wales by the cranial buckler of Ganorhynchus süssmilchi.

=Gyracanthides murrayi=,

A. S. Woodw.

L. Carboniferous. Mansfield, Victoria.

(Restoration).

About 1/12 nat. size]

A--Strepsodus decipiens, A. S. Woodw. L. Carboniferous. Victoria

B--Elonichthys sweeti, A. S. Woodw. L. Carboniferous. Victoria

C--Corax australis, Chapm. L. Cretaceous. Queensland

D--Belouostomus sweeti, Eth. fil. and Woodw. L. Cretaceous. Q.

=Carboniferous Fishes.--=

The Lower Carboniferous sandstone of Burnt Creek and other localities near Mansfield, Victoria, contains an abundant fish fauna, associated with stems of Lepidodendron. The slabs of sandstone are often ripple-marked and show signs of tracks and castings of shore-living animals. These deposits were probably laid down in shallow water at the shore margin or in salt lagoons or brackish areas skirting the coast, into which at intervals the remains of the giant lycopods were drifted. The more important of these fish remains are Elasmobranchs, as Gyracanthides murrayi (Fig. 123) and Acanthodes australis; the Dipnoan, Ctenodus breviceps; a Rhizodont or fringe-finned ganoid, Strepsodus decipiens (Fig. 124 A); and a genus related to Palaeoniscus, Elonichthys (E. sweeti, Fig. 124 B, and E. gibbus). The defence spines of Gyracanthides are fairly abundant in the sandstones; whilst on some slabs the large enamelled scales of Strepsodus are equally conspicuous.

From the sandstones of the same age, Lower Carboniferous, in the Grampians of Western Victoria, some small but well-preserved spines belonging to the genus Physonemus have been found associated with a new variety of the well-known European Carboniferous brachiopod, Lingula squamiformis (var. borungensis).

=Carbopermian Fishes.--=

In the Carbopermian (Gympie Beds) of the Rockhampton District, Queensland, a tooth of a Cochliodont ("snail tooth") occurs, which has been doubtfully referred to the genus Deltodus (? D. australis). The Cochliodontidae show dentition remarkably like that of the Cestracion or Port Jackson Shark. Another tooth having the same family relationship has been referred to Tomodus ? convexus, Agassiz; this is from the Carbopermian of the Port Stephen district of New South Wales. From the Newcastle Coal Measures in New South Wales a Palaeoniscus-like fish, Urosthenes australis has been described.

Carbopermian fish remains are rare in Western Australia. They comprise a wrinkled tooth of Edestus (E. davisii) from the Gascoyne River, belonging to a fish closely related to the Port Jackson shark; and a cochliodont, Poecilodus (P. jonesi, Ag.) from the Kimberley district.

=Triassic Fishes.--=

Fossil fishes are important and numerous in Australian Triassic beds, especially in New South Wales. At the base of the Hawkesbury or close of the Narrabeen series, the railway ballast quarry near Gosford has yielded an extensive and extremely interesting collection. Near the floor of the quarry there is a band of sandy shale and laminated sandstone 5 feet 9 inches in thickness, and this contains the following genera:--A dipnoan, Gosfordia; and the following ganoids or enamelled scale fishes--Myriolepis, Apateolepis, Dictyopyge, Belonorhynchus, Semionotus, Pristisomus (see antea, Fig. 18), Cleithrolepis (Fig. 125), Pholidophorus and ? Peltopleurus.

=Upper Triassic Fishes.--=

In the middle of the Wianamatta or Upper Trias Series at St. Peter's, near Sydney, which contains a fauna described as slightly older in aspect than that of Gosford, having Carbopermian affinities, there occur in the hard shale or clay stone the genera Pleuracanthus (a Palaeozoic shark); Sagenodus (a dipnoan related to Ctenodus of the Victorian Carboniferous); and the following ganoids,--Palaeoniscus, Elonichthys, Myriolepis, Elpisopholis, Platysomus and Acentrophorus. From the soft shales were obtained Palaeoniscus, Semionotus, Cleithrolepis and Pholidophorus; an assemblage of genera somewhat comparable with the Gosford fauna.

Triassic (Hawkesbury Series). Gosford, New South Wales. 3/4 nat. size.

(After Smith Woodward.) ]

=Lower Mesozoic Fishes.--=

From the Lower Mesozoic sandstone (?Triassic) of Tasmania, two species of Acrolepis have been described, viz., A. hamiltoni and A. tasmanicus. The former occurs in the thick bed of sandstone, of nearly 1,000 feet, at Knocklofty; the latter species in the sandstone with Vertebraria conformably overlying the Carbopermian at Tinderbox Bay.

1--Ceratodus avus, A. S. Woodw. Left splenial with lower tooth. Cape Paterson, Victoria. About 1/3 nat. size

2--Ceratodus forsteri, Krefft. Left lower tooth. Living. Queensland. About 1/3 nat. size

3--Phalangeal of Carnivorous Dinosaur. Cape Paterson. About 1/3 nat. size

4--Phalangeal of Megalosaurian. Wealden, Sussex, England. 1/4 nat. size

=Jurassic Fishes.--=

The Jurassic beds of Victoria contain three genera. Psilichthys selwyni, a doubtful palaeoniscid was described from Carapook, Co. Dundas; whilst Leptolepis, a genus found in the Trias of New South Wales and the Lias and Oolite of Europe, is represented by L. crassicauda from Casterton, associated with the typical Jurassic fern, Taeniopteris. In the Jurassic beds of South Gippsland, at Cape Paterson, an interesting splenial tooth of the mudfish, Ceratodus, was found, named C. avus (Fig. 126). Since then, in a bore-core from Kirrak near the same place a fish scale was discovered (Fig. 127) which, by its shape, size and structure seems to differ in no way from the living lung-fish of Queensland (Fig. 128). It is reasonable to infer that tooth and scale belong to the same species; and in view of the close relationship of the tooth with that of the living mudfish, rather than with that of the Ceratodus found fossil in the Mesozoic of Europe, it may be referred to Neoceratodus, in which genus the living species is now placed.

or Barramunda (Neoceratodus forsteri). About 1/12th. nat. size

(After Lydekker, in Warne's Natural History) ]

Talbragar Series, Jurassic. Talbragar River, New South Wales 1/2 nat. size]

From the Jurassic beds (Talbragar Series) of New South Wales, an interesting collection of ganoid fishes has been described, comprising Coccolepis australis, Aphnelepis australis, Aetheolepis mirabilis, Archaeomaene tenuis, A. robustus, Leptolepis talbragarensis, L. lowei and L. gregarina (Fig. 129).

=Lower Cretaceous Fishes.--=

Fish remains are fairly abundant in the Lower Cretaceous of Queensland. They comprise both the sharks and the ganoids. Of the sharks, a specimen, showing seven conjoined vertebrae has been named Lamna daviesii, from the Richmond Downs, Flinders River district; and a tooth referred to Lamna appendiculatus, Agassiz, from Kamileroy, Leichhardt River, N.W. Queensland. The typical Cretaceous genus Corax is represented by a small tooth named C. australis (Fig. 124 C), from the Hamilton River, Queensland, and which closely approaches the tooth of Corax affinis, Agassiz, from the Upper Cretaceous of Europe. Of the ganoid fishes two genera, both members of the family Aspidorhynchidae, have been found in Queensland. Aspidorhynchus sp. and Belonostomus sweeti (Fig. 124 D) have both occurred at Hughenden, Flinders River district. The former genus has a slender body and produced rostrum; in Europe it is more characteristic of Jurassic strata. Belonostomus ranges from the Upper Oolite, Bavaria, to the Upper Cretaceous in other parts of the world. Remains of a species of Portheus, one of the predaceous fishes which lived in the Cretaceous period, consisting of a portion of the cranium with the anterior part of the jaws, has been obtained from the Rolling Downs Formation (Lower Cretaceous) near Hughenden, Queensland.

=Cretaceous Fishes, New Zealand.--=

A--Notidanus marginalis, Davis. Cainozoic. New Zealand

B--Callorhynchus hectori, Newton. Cainozoic. New Zealand

C--Oxyrhina hastalis, Ag. Cainozoic. Victoria

D--Lamna apiculata, Ag. Cainozoic. Victoria

E--Carcharodon auriculatus, Blainv. sp. Cainozoic. Victoria

F--Sargus laticonus, Davis. Cainozoic. New Zealand

The Cretaceous beds of New Zealand are grouped in ascending order as the Waipara Greensands, the Amuri Limestone and the Weka Pass Stone. In the Waipara beds occur the teeth of Notidanus marginalis (Fig. 130 A), and N. dentatus. In the Amuri Limestone N. dentatus is again found, as well as the genus Lamna, represented by L. compressa, Ag. (originally described as L. marginalis, Davis), L. carinata and L. hectori. Two forms of "Elephant fish" are represented by their dental plates, namely Callorhynchus hectori (Fig. 130 B) and Ischyodus thurmanni, Pictet and Campiche (recorded as I. brevirostris, Ag.).

=Cainozoic Fishes.--=

Fish remains principally consisting of teeth, are common fossils in the Cainozoic beds of southern Australia, particularly in Victoria, and also in New Zealand.

=Balcombian Series, Southern Australia.--=

The Balcombian beds as seen at Mornington and in the Lower Beds at Muddy Creek, Hamilton, contain the teeth of sharks as Odontaspis contortidens, Lamna crassidens, L. apiculata, Oxyrhina hastalis (rarely), O. minuta, Carcharodon megalodon, and C. robustus.

=Janjukian.--=

The Janjukian Series (Miocene), represented at Torquay, Waurn Ponds and Table Cape, contains an abundant fish fauna, including amongst sharks, Cestracion cainozoicus, Asteracanthus eocaenicus, Galeocerdo davisi, Carcharoides totuserratus, Odontaspis contortidens, O. incurva, O. cuspidata, Lamna crassidens, L. apiculata (Fig. 130 D), L. compressa, L. bronni, Oxyrhina hastalis (occasional) (Fig. 130 C), O. desori, O. retroflexa, O. minuta, Carcharodon auriculatus (Fig. 130 E), C. megalodon and C. robustus. A species of chimaeroid or Elephant fish is represented by a left mandibular tooth named Ischyodus mortoni, from the Table Cape Beds, Tasmania.

The Corio Bay series contains teeth of Acanthias geelongensis, Sphyrna prisca, Odontaspis contortidens, O. attenuata, Oxyrhina minuta, Carcharodon megalodon, amongst sharks; whilst the spine of a Porcupine Fish, Diodon connewarrensis has been obtained from the clays of Lake Connewarre, Victoria.

=Kalimnan.--=

A--Carcharoides tenuidens, Chapm. Cainozoic (Janj.) Victoria

B--Odontaspis contortidens. Agassiz. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria

C--Galeocerdo latidens, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria

D--Myliobatis morrabbinensis, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria

E--Labrodon confertidens. Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.) Vict.

F--Diodon formosus, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.) Vict.

The Kalimnan Series is also prolific in the remains of fishes, the principal localities being Beaumaris and Grange Burn, Hamilton. Amongst the sharks there found are, Notidanus jenningsi (related to the Indian Grey Shark), Cestracion cainozoicus (related to the Port Jackson Shark), Asteracanthus eocaenicus, Galeocerdo davisi, G. latidens (Fig. 131 C), G. aduncus, Odontaspis contortidens (Fig. 131 B), O. incurva, O. cuspidata, O. attenuata, Lamna apiculata, L. compressa, Oxyrhina hastalis (abundant), O. desori, O. retroflexa, O. eocaena, O. minuta, Carcharodon auriculatus and C. megalodon. An extinct species of Sting Ray, Myliobatis moorabbinensis (Fig. 131 D), is found at Beaumaris, represented by occasional palatal teeth. Mandibular and palatine teeth of an extinct genus of Elephant Fish, Edaphodon (E. sweeti) are occasionally found at Beaumaris, and at Grange Burn near Hamilton. Two extinct forms of the Wrasse family, the Labridae, are found in Victoria; the pharyngeals of Labrodon confertidens (Fig. 131 E), occurring at Grange Burn, Hamilton, and those of L. depressus, at Beaumaris. The palatal jaws of a Porcupine Fish, Diodon formosus (Fig. 131 F), are frequently met with at the base of the Kalimnan Series, both at Grange Burn and Beaumaris.

=Oamaru Series, New Zealand.--=

In New Zealand the Oamaru Series, which is comparable in age with the Victorian Janjukian, contains numerous fish remains, chiefly teeth of sharks. These are: Notidanus primigenius, N. marginalis (also occurring in the Waipara Series), Galeocerdo davisi, Odontaspis incurva, O. cuspidata, O. attenuata, Lamna apiculata, L. compressa, Oxyrhina retroflexa, Carcharodon auriculatus, C. megalodon and C. robustus. The teeth of a Sting Ray, Myliobatis plicatilis and of a species of Sea-bream, Sargus laticonus, also occur in this series (Fig. 130 F).

=Pleistocene.--=

A species of fish belonging to the family of the Perches, Ctenolates avus, has been described from freshwater carbonaceous shale of Pleistocene age from Nimbin on the Richmond River, New South Wales.

=Amphibians: Their Structure.--=

AMPHIBIANS.--This group includes amongst living forms the Frogs, Toads, Newts, and Salamanders. The remains of amphibia are rare in Australasian rocks, and practically limited to the group of the Triassic Labyrinthodonts. The Amphibia are distinguished from Reptiles by certain changes which their young undergo after leaving the egg. In this intermediate stage they breathe by external gills, these being sometimes retained together with the internal lungs in the adult stage. In the older forms of this group the vertebra is of the nature of a notochord, the joints consisting of a thin bony ring with a gelatinous interior. The Labyrinthodontia have a long, lizard-like body, short pectoral limbs as compared with the pelvic, and five-toed feet. The skull is completely roofed over. The teeth are pointed, with a large pulp cavity and wall of infolded or plicated dentine (hence the name labyrinthodont--maze-tooth). The vertebrae are hollow on both sides, sometimes imperfectly ossified, and with a notochordal canal. Ventral aspect with bony thoracic plates. Cranial bones deeply sculptured, and carrying mucus canals.

=Carbopermian Labyrinthodonts.--=

The genus Bothriceps, probably an Archegosaurian, is represented by two species, B. australis and B. major from New South Wales (Fig. 132). The latter species occurs in the Oil Shale (Carbopermian) of Airly.

Carbopermian. New South Wales. About 1/11th. nat. size

(After A. S. Woodward). ]

=Triassic Labyrinthodonts.--=

From the Hawkesbury Series near Gosford, New South Wales, the labyrinthodont, Platyceps wilkinsoni has been described. The skeleton is nearly complete and exposed on the ventral face; the head is 27mm. long and 32mm. broad. This specimen is associated with the remains of ganoid fishes, as Palaeoniscus and Cleithrolepis, together with the equisetum-like plant Phyllotheca.

Other, somewhat doubtful remains having similar affinities to the labyrinthodonts are also recorded from the Wianamatta beds (Upper Trias) at Bowral, New South Wales, consisting of a maxilla with teeth and 11 vertebrae with ribs of the left side. Remains of a labyrinthodont, Biloela, supposed to be related to Mastodonsaurus, have been recorded from the Hawkesbury Series of Cockatoo Island, Port Jackson, New South Wales, by W. J. Stephens, and consisting of a pectoral plate compared by that author with M. robustus (now transferred to the genus Capitosaurus).

The only other recorded remains of this group in Australasia are those noted by W. J. Stephens from the Kaihiku Series (Trias) at Nugget Point, Otago; and in the Otapiri Series (Upper Trias) of the Wairoa district, New Zealand.

=Reptilia: Their Structure.--=

REPTILIA.--The Reptiles are cold-blooded, vertebrated animals, with a scaly skin or armour. Their respiration is essentially by means of lungs, and they are terrestrial or aquatic in habit. The skeleton is completely ossified (bony). Reptiles, although resembling amphibians externally, are more differentiated in structure and of generally larger proportions. They exhibit great diversity of form, especially as regards their extremities. They were even adapted for flying, as in the Pterosaurs ("Flying Dragons") with their membranous wing attached to the anterior limb. The Deinosaurs ("Terrible Reptiles") were often of great size, exceeding the dimensions of any land mammals, and their limbs were adapted for walking. The marine reptiles, as the Ichthyosauria ("Fish-lizards") and Sauropterygia ("lizard-finned") had the limbs transformed into paddles. The neural spines in the vertebra of the Turtles are laterally expanded into a carapace and united with dermal plates. The vertebrae of Reptilia show great variation of form, being biplanate (amphiplatyan), biconcave (amphicoelus), hollow in front (procoelus), or hollow at the back (opisthocoelus). In the case of Reptiles having both pairs of limbs developed, the cervical, dorsal, sacral and caudal regions may be separately distinguished. Amongst the Ophidia (Snakes), Pythonomorpha ("Sea-lizards") and Ichthyosaurs ("Fish-lizards") there is no differentiated sacral region. The skull of the Reptiles is nearer that of Birds than Amphibians. The basiocciput (basal bone of the skull at the back) articulates with the atlas (top joint of the backbone) by means of a single condyle (protuberance). All reptiles, with the exception of the Chelonians (Turtles), and a few others, are furnished with teeth: these are formed chiefly of dentine with a layer of enamel.

=Dentition.--=

Some teeth have solid crowns (pleodont); some grow from persistent pulps (coelodont); socketed teeth (thecodont) are inserted in alveoli; some are fused with the supporting bone along the outer rim or top (acrodont); whilst others are developed laterally along the flange-like inner rim of the jaw (pleurodont).

=Permian and Triassic Reptiles.--=

The history of Reptilia commences in Permian and Triassic times, when they were notably represented by the Theromorphs, Pareiasaurus and Tritylodon in South Africa; the Proterosauria of the European and American Permian and Trias, represented by the lizard-like Palaeohatteria and the dorsally frilled Dimetrodon, with its formidable array of neural spines; also the Rhynchosauria, with their beak-like jaws of the same formations. These two groups constitute the order Rhynchocephalia, which is represented at the present day by the Tuatera of New Zealand.

=Triassic Reptile, New Zealand.--=

The earliest Australian reptilian record is that of a vertebra of Ichthyosaurus from the Kaihiku Series of Mount Potts, New Zealand (Triassic). This specimen was named I. australis by Hector, but since that species name was preoccupied by McCoy in 1867 it is suggested here that the New Zealand species should be distinguished as I. hectori. The New Zealand occurrence of Ichthyosaurus makes the geological history of the genus very ancient in this part of the world.

=Jurassic Reptiles.--=

At Cape Paterson, Victoria, in the Jurassic coal-bearing sandstone an extremely interesting discovery was made a few years ago, of the ungual bone (claw) of a carnivorous Deinosaur, probably related to Megalosaurus of the European Jurassic and Cretaceous beds (See Fig. 126, 3, 3 A). The presence of an animal like this in Australia points to the former existence of a concomitant terrestrial animal fauna, upon which the deinosaur must have preyed.

A--Part of head, showing eye protected by sclerotic plates

B--Left pectoral paddle. L. Cretaceous. Flinders River, Queensland. 1/8 nat. size

(Nat. Mus. Coll.) ]

=Lower Cretaceous Reptiles.--=

The Rolling Downs formation (Lower Cretaceous) of the Thompson and Flinders Rivers in Queensland has yielded remains of a Tortoise, Notochelone costata (see antea, Fig. 17); and the interesting Fish-lizard Ichthyosaurus. Numerous and well preserved remains of I. australis McCoy come from the Flinders River (Fig. 133); whilst I. marathonensis is recorded from Marathon Station, Queensland. The former species is typically represented by a nearly complete skeleton, and was considered by McCoy to be one of the largest examples of the genus, since a perfect specimen would probably reach the length of 25 feet. Its teeth resemble those of I. campylodon, Carter, from the English Chalk. Of the Sauropterygia two species of Pliosaurus (P. macrospondylus and P. sutherlandi) have been described from the Lower Cretaceous of the Flinders River; whilst the latter species has also occurred at Pitchery Creek, Central Queensland and at Marathon. P. macrospondylus is distinguished from P. sutherlandi by the roughened edges of the vertebral centra. Another genus of the "lizard-finned" reptiles (Sauropterygia), viz., Cimoliosaurus, occurs in the Upper Cretaceous of White Cliffs, New South Wales (Fig. 134 B, C.)

A--Taniwhasaurus oweni. Hector. (Lower jaw). Cretaceous. New Zealand

B--Cimoliosaurus leucoscopelus, Eth. fil. (Teeth). Up. Cretaceous. New South Wales

C--Cimoliosaurus leucoscopelus, Eth. fil. (Phalangeal). Up. Cretaceous. New South Wales

D--Miolania oweni, A. S. Woodw. Pleistocene. Queensland

=Cretaceous Reptiles, New Zealand.--=

The Waipara Series (Cretaceous) of New Zealand contains a fairly large number of reptilian species belonging to several genera among which may be mentioned Plesiosaurus, Polycotylus, and Cimoliosaurus among the Sauropterygia; and Tylosaurus and Taniwhasaurus (Fig. 134 A), marine lizard-like reptiles, belonging to the sub-order Pythonomopha.

=Cainozoic and Pleistocene Reptiles.--=

The later Cainozoic deposits of Queensland contain remains of Crocodiles referred to Pallymnarchus pollens (from Maryvale Creek) and Crocodilus porosus (from Chinchilla and Arcola, near Brisbane, Queensland). The former species has also occurred at Clunes, whilst Crocodilus porosus is recorded from the Loddon Valley, both in Victoria. Another late Tertiary reptile is the remarkable Horned Turtle, Miolania oweni, which is found in Queensland in Pleistocene deposits (Fig. 134 D), and in the Pliocene (Deep Leads) of Gulgong, New South Wales; whilst a second species of the same genus, M. platyceps, is found in coral sand at Lord Howe Island, 400 miles distant from Australia. This genus has a skull with large bony protuberances, giving it a horned appearance, and the tail is encased in a bony sheath. A species of Miolania is also described from Patagonia. The Cave deposits of Wellington Valley, New South Wales, as well as the fluviatile deposits of Queensland, have, yielded the bones of several genera of lizards, including the Giant Lizard (Megalania), which, in its length of 20 feet exceeded that of most living crocodiles.

=Birds.--=

BIRDS (AVES).--These warm-blooded animals are closely related to Reptiles in many essential particulars; and are generally considered to more nearly approach the Deinosaurs than any other group. The Ratitae ("Raft-breasted" or keel-less birds) and Carinatae (with keeled breast-bones), a sub-class including most modern birds, were probably differentiated before the Cainozoic period.

=Jurassic Bird.--=

The oldest recorded bird, the remarkable Archaeopteryx, of the Upper Jurassic of Bavaria in Europe, belonging to the Saururae (Reptilian-tailed) is, so far, restricted to the beds of that age.

=Miocene Bird, New Zealand.--=

The earliest known birds in Australasia occur in the Miocene rocks (Oamaru Series), of New Zealand. In this series, in the Marawhenua Greensands, a Giant Penguin, Palaeeudyptes antarcticus is found at Kakanui near Oamaru, at Curiosity Shop near Christchurch and at Brighton near Nelson, New Zealand: this interesting occurrence shows that these restricted antarctic birds had already become an established type as early as the Miocene.

=Victorian Cainozoic Bird.--=

The impression of a bird's feather, probably of a Wader, has lately been described from Western Victoria (see antea Fig. 16 and Fig. 135). This occurs in ironstone, on the surface of which are also impressions of Gum (Eucalyptus) and Native Honeysuckle (Banksia) leaves, of species closely related to those now growing in the same locality. This ironstone is probably of Janjukian age, and may therefore be coincident with the New Zealand occurrence of the Palaeeudyptes in the Oamaru Series.

=Pliocene Moa, New Zealand.--=

In the Wanganui System (Pliocene) the Putiki Beds have yielded bones of a small Moa (Dinornis), probably the oldest example of the group of great flightless birds which later predominated in New Zealand.

Wannon River, Victoria. (Enlarged).]

=Pleistocene Struthious Birds, Australia.--=

Bones of a struthious or Ostrich-like bird, described by Owen under the name of Dromornis australis, a bird as large as the Moa, have been recorded from the Pleistocene of Peak Downs and the Paroo River, Queensland. Indeterminate species of the same genera occur in Phillip Co., New South Wales, and the Mount Gambier Caves, South Australia; whilst Dromaeus patricius is known from King's Creek, Darling Downs, Queensland.

Genyornis newtoni is an extinct bird allied to the Emeus; it has been found in Pleistocene deposits at Lake Callabonna, South Australia, and other fragmentary remains have been identified by Dr. Stirling and Mr. Zietz from Mount Gambier and Queensland. Regarding the build and habits of Genyornis, those authors remark that "Its legs combine a huge femur nearly as massive, in all but length, as that of Dinornis maximus, and a tibia equalling that of Pachyornis elephantopus with the relatively slender metatarse of Dinornis novae-zealandiae (ingens) and toes which are insignificant beside those of any of the larger moas."... "In height it may be confidently stated to have been from 6 feet to 6 feet 6 inches, that is if the neck should have been of proportions similar to those of Pachyornis elephantopus." Those authors also attribute a slow, sluggish habit to the bird, and suggest that herbage rather than roots formed its food. It is very probable that the footprints of birds found in the older dune rock of Warrnambool, Victoria, associated with the doubtful "human footprints" may have been made by Genyornis or a related form.

An extinct Emu, Dromaeus minor, has lately been described from the sub-recent deposits in King Island, Bass Strait.

=Pleistocene Carinate Birds, Australia.--=

Many genera of carinate birds belonging to living Australian types have been identified by De Vis from the fluviatile deposits on the Darling Downs, Queensland. These include Falcons (Taphaetus and Necrastur); a Pelican (Pelicanus); an Ibis (Palaeopelargus); a Spoonbill (Platalea); Ducks (Anas, Dendrocygna, Biziura and Nyroca); a Darter (Plotus); a Pigeon (Lithophaps); a Ground-pigeon (Progura); a Mound-builder (Chosornis); a Rail (Porphyrio); Moor-hens (Gallinula, Tribonyx and Fulica); and a Stork (Xenorhynchus).

=Pleistocene and Holocene Birds, New Zealand.--=

In New Zealand numerous remains of birds are found, chiefly in the Pleistocene strata, associated with Moa bones: such are Cnemiornis, the Flightless Pigeon Goose (Fig. 135); Harpagornis, a predatory hawk-like bird larger than any existing eagle; and Aptornis, an extinct Rail. The sand-dunes, peat bogs, swamps, river alluvium, caves and rock shelters of New Zealand often contain numerous remains of the gigantic Moa birds included in the genera Dinornis, Pachyornis and Anomalopteryx, of which perhaps the best known are D. giganteus, D. maximus (Fig. 136), D. robustus, P. elephantopus (Fig. 137), and A. antiqua. Some of the species have become so recently extinct that remains of their skin and feathers have been preserved in fissures in the rocks where they were shielded from the influence of air and moisture. The remains of Moa birds are very abundant in some of the localities as at Hamilton in Southland, where, as Hutton estimated, the remains of at least 400 birds were contained within a radius of 25 feet.

Pleistocene. New Zealand. 1/15th. nat. size

(After Owen). ]

Pleistocene and Holocene. New Zealand.

Vertical height, 8 ft. Measured along spine, 10 ft. 8 in.

(Nat. Mus. Coll.) ]

Pleistocene. New Zealand. About 1/26th. nat. size.

(After Owen). ]

=Mammalia: Early Types.--=

MAMMALIA.--The history of those warm-blooded animals, the mammals, commences in the early part of the Mesozoic period. It was then that the skull began to assume the characters seen in the modern quadrupeds, and their well-formed limb-bones, and fusion of the three bones on each side of the pelvic arch to form the innominate bone, also show relationship to the later types. The earliest ancestral mammalian forms seem to be related to the theromorphic reptiles, predominant in the Permian and Trias. The mammals first to make their appearance were probably related to those of the Monotreme and Marsupial orders. More nearly related to the former is the group of mammals of the Mesozoic period, the Multituberculata.

=Multituberculata.--=

This group comprises the Triassic Tritylodon (South Africa and Germany); the Upper Jurassic Bolodon (England and United States); the Upper Jurassic to Lower Cainozoic Plagiaulax (England, United States and France); and the Lower Eocene Polymastodon (New Mexico). The molar teeth are ridged longitudinally, and carry numerous tubercles, hence the name of the group, and resemble the deciduous teeth of the Duck-billed Platypus (Ornithorhynchus).

=Monotremata.--=

The Monotremata are represented at the present day in Australia and New Guinea by the Echidna or Spiny Anteater, and by the Ornithorhynchus or Duck-billed Platypus of Eastern Australia and Tasmania. These egg-laying mammals show relationship towards the reptiles both in structure and in methods of reproduction.

A Pliocene species of Ornithorhynchus (O. maximus) has been recorded from the Deep-leads of Gulgong, New South Wales, and the same beds have yielded the remains of Echidna (Proechidna) robusta. Remains of another species, Echidna, (P.) oweni, have been described from the Pleistocene Cave-breccias of the Wellington Valley Caves, New South Wales; and Ornithorhynchus agilis is found in deposits of similar age in Queensland.

=Marsupials.--=

The Marsupials or pouched mammals belong to the sub-class Metatheria. They are divided into Diprotodontia and Polyprotodontia, accordingly as they possess a single pair of incisor teeth in the lower jaw, or many front teeth, hence the names of the two sub-orders. A later classification of the Marsupials is that of their division into syndactyla and diadactyla.

The diadactyla have the second and third toes separate, and are represented by the family Dasyuridae or Native Cats. These are polyprotodont. They are the most archaic of the marsupial group. Remains of Dasyurus, both of extinct and still living species are found in Pleistocene Cave-breccias in Victoria and New South Wales. The Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus ursinus) (Fig. 138, 139) and the Tasmanian Wolf (Thylacinus cynocephalus), still living in Tasmania, have left numerous remains on the mainland, in Victoria and New South Wales. Of the latter genus an extinct species is T. major from the Pleistocene of Queensland (Fig. 140).

=Skeleton of Sarcophilus ursinus, Harris sp. (Tasmanian devil).=

(F. J. Moore, prep.) ]

=Skull of Sarcophilus ursinus, Harris sp. (Tasmanian devil).=

Pleistocene. Queenscliff, Victoria. About 1/2 nat. size

(After McCoy). ]

The syndactyla have the second and third toes enclosed in a common skin. The Peramelidae and the Notoryctidae are polyprotodont. The remainder are all diprotodont. The Peramelidae or Bandicoot family are represented in Pleistocene Cave-breccias in New South Wales by the genera Peragale and Perameles.

Hind part of mandible, outer side. Pleistocene. Queensland.

1/2 nat. size]

=Pleistocene Diprotodonts.--=

Pleistocene remains of the diprotodont forms of this syndactylous group are Phascolomys (the Wombat), perhaps ranging as low as Upper Pliocene (P. pliocenus) (Fig. 141); Phascolonus (P. gigas) (Fig. 142 A), a large Wombat from Queensland and New South Wales and South Australia; the Giant Kangaroos, as Macropus titan (Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia), Procoptodon goliah (Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria), Sthenurus atlas (New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria and South Australia), Palorchestes azael (Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland); also the great Diprotodon, the largest known marsupial, as large as, and rather taller than, a rhinoceros, found in almost every part of Australia, with an allied form referred to Nototherium occurring also in Tasmania (Figs. 143, 144, 145). Nototherium (Queensland, South Australia and Victoria), was a smaller animal than Diprotodon, with a shorter and broader skull and similar dentition. Remains of the extinct "Marsupial Lion," Thylacoleo carnifex, an animal allied to the phalangers, have been found in Cave-deposits in New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria and Western Australia. Incised bones of other animals, which are believed to have been gnawed by Thylacoleo, have been found associated with its remains. Thylacoleo possessed a peculiar dentition, the first pair of incisors in the upper jaw being very large and trenchant, whilst the canine and two anterior premolars are small and functionless: the lower jaw has also a pair of large first incisors, behind which are two small premolars, and an enormous chisel-edged last premolar biting against a similar tooth in the upper jaw (Fig. 146).

(?) Upper Pliocene ("Gold Cement.") Dunolly, Vict.

About 1/2 nat. size.

(After McCoy). ]

A--Phascolonus gigas, Owen. (Molar). Pleistocene. Queensland

B--Parasqualodon wilkinsoni, McCoy. (Molar). Cainozoic (Janj.) Vict.

C--Parasqualodon wilkinsoni, McCoy. (Incisor). Cainozoic (Janj.) Vict.

D--Metasqualodon harwoodi, Sanger sp. (Molar). Cainozoic (Janj.) South Australia

E--Kekenodon onamata, Hector. (Molar). Cainozoic (Oamaruian). New Zealand

F--Cetotolithes nelsoni, McCoy. (Tympanic bone). Cainozoic (Janj.) Victoria

Pleistocene. South Australia.

(After Stirling and Zeitz). ]

A--With the Astragalus (ankle-bone) in position.

B-- " " " " removed.

Cir. 1/8 nat. size.]

From a sketch by C. H. Angas.]

Right lateral aspect of skull and mandible.

Pleistocene. Australia. 1/5th nat. size.

c, canine. i, incisors. m, molars. pm, premolars. ]

Upper Cainozoic (Turritella bed). Table Cape. Tasmania.

2/7th nat. size.

(Casts in Nat. Mus. Coll.) ]

=Oldest Known Marsupial.=

The oldest marsupial found in Australia is probably Wynyardia bassiana (Fig. 147), whose remains occurred in the Turritella-bed at Table Cape, which is either of Miocene or Lower Pliocene age. This stratum occurs above the well-known Crassatellites-bed (Miocene) of that locality. So far as can be gathered from its incomplete dentition, Wynyardia represents an annectant form between the Diprotodonts and the Polyprotodonts.

=Pleistocene Genera, also Living.--=

Besides the genera above enumerated, many other marsupials of well-known living species are represented by fossil remains in Cave-deposits and on "sand-blows" in most of the Australian States. The genera thus represented in the Pleistocene deposits of Australia are Bettongia (Prehensile Rat-Kangaroo); Dasyurus (Native Cat); Hypsiprymnus (Rat-Kangaroo); Macropus (Kangaroo); Perameles (Bandicoot); Petaurus (Flying Phalanger); Phalanger (Cuscus); Phascolomys (Wombat); Sarcophilus (Tasmanian Devil); Thylacinus (Tasmanian Wolf).

=Cetacea.--=

The order Cetacea includes Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises. The earliest known forms belong to the sub-order Archaeoceti, and whilst absent from Australian deposits, are found in the Eocene of Europe, Northern Africa and North America.

=Odontoceti: Toothed Whales.--=

Remains of Cetacea are first met with in Australian rocks in the Oligocene (Balcombian) of Victoria. At Muddy Creek near Hamilton fragments of ribs and other bones of cetacea, not yet determined, occur in the tenacious blue clays of the lower part of the Clifton Bank section. In Australia and New Zealand the oldest determinable remains of this order belong to the Odontoceti, members of which range from Miocene to Pliocene. Teeth of the toothed whales like Squalodon of the Miocene of France and Bavaria have been found in New Zealand (Kekenodon); in South Australia (Metasqualodon); and in Victoria (Parasqualodon). In Victoria the teeth of Squalodontidae occur in the Janjukian beds of Cape Otway, Waurn Ponds and Torquay, represented by molars and anterior teeth of Parasqualodon wilkinsoni (Fig. 142 B, C). The same species also occurs at Table Cape, Tasmania, in beds of similar age. Teeth of Metasqualodon harwoodi (Fig. 142 D) occasionally occur in the white polyzoal rock of the Mount Gambier district, South Australia. The gigantic toothed whale, Kekenodon onamata (Fig. 142 E) occurs in the Marawhenua Greensands (Oamaru Series) at Waitaki Valley, Waihao, Ngapara, Waikouaiti and Milburn in New Zealand. The molar teeth of this striking species, with their serrated crowns, measure nearly five inches in length.

=Ear-bones of Whales.--=

The tympanic bones of whales are not uncommon in the Janjukian beds of Waurn Ponds, near Geelong, Victoria; and they are occasionally found in the basement bed of the Kalimnan at Beaumaris, Port Phillip. In the absence of any distinctive generic characters they have been referred to the quasi-genus Cetotolithes (Fig. 142 F). McCoy has expressed the opinion that they may perhaps be referable to the ziphioid or beaked whales, for undoubted remains of that group, as teeth of Ziphius geelongensis, occur in these same beds; as well as portions of their rostrate crania, in the Kalimnan basement beds at Grange Burn, near Hamilton. The large curved and flattened teeth of Ziphius (Dolichodon) geelongensis are occasionally found, more or less fragmentary, in the polyzoal rock of Waurn Ponds.

An Extinct Sperm Whale.

From the Kalimnan beds of Beaumaris, Port Phillip, Victoria.

About 3/4 nat. size.]

=Kalimnan-Scaldicetus.--=

From the Kalimnan Series (Lower Pliocene) of Beaumaris, Port Phillip, there was described a short time since, a remarkably well preserved specimen of Scaldicetus tooth belonging to a new form, S. macgeei (Fig. 148). Another species of the genus, with teeth of a slender form, has been found in the same geological series, at Grange Burn, near Hamilton. In only one other locality besides Australia does the genus occur, viz., at Antwerp, Belgium, in Crag deposits of Lower Pliocene age.

=Sirenia.--=

The order Sirenia (Manatees and Dugongs) is represented in the Australian Pleistocene by Chronozoön australe. The remains consist of the parietal and upper part of the occipital bones of the skull, and were discovered in the fluviatile deposits on the Darling Downs, Queensland. This fossil skull, according to De Vis, had a shallower temporal fossa and feebler masticating muscles, as well as a less highly developed brain than the existing Dugong.

=Carnivora.--=

The order Carnivora is represented in Australia by the Native Dog or Dingo (Canis dingo). It is by no means a settled question whether the Dingo can boast of very great antiquity. The evidence of its remains having been found under volcanic tuff beds in Victoria is not very convincing, for the original record does not indicate the precise position where the bones were found. The fact of the remains of the Dingo having been found in Cave deposits often associated with extinct marsupials, goes a good way to prove its antiquity. McCoy was strongly inclined to the view of its Pleistocene age, and points out that it shows cranial characters intermediate between the Dogs of South America and the Old World. Fossil remains of the Dingo, associated with Pleistocene mammalian forms have been recorded from the Wellington, Valley Caves, New South Wales; from the Mount Macedon Cave, near Gisborne; and in the neighbourhood of Warrnambool, Western Victoria.

=Pinnipedia.--=

Of the fin-footed Carnivores or Seals and Walruses, the earliest Australasian record is that of the remains of a small seal in the Okehu shell-beds near Wanganui, found in association with the bones of a small Moa-bird (Dinornis).

=Newer Pliocene Seal.--=

This seal was referred by Hector to Arctocephalus cinereus, a species synonymous, however, with the widely distributed living Seal, Otaria forsteri, Lesson, of the Southern Ocean. Another and larger species of eared seal allied to the living Fur Seal, Otaria forsteri, occurs in Victoria.

=Pleistocene Seal.--=

This fossil was named Arctocephalus williamsi by McCoy, and was found in Pleistocene deposits at Queenscliff, Port Phillip, at 5 feet below the surface, in marl and sand stone overlain with limestone. Although referred at the time of description to the Pliocene, it has since been proved that at this locality there is a considerable thickness of practically sub-recent material which is more accurately classed with the Pleistocene. Similar remains of eared seals are not uncommon in the Pleistocene deposits of the Otway Coast.

=Subrecent Human Remains.=

On turning to the occurrence of "human fossils" in Australia we find the geological evidence for any great antiquity of man on this continent to be very scanty and inconclusive. This does not, however, imply that man's existence in Australia will not eventually be proved to date back far beyond the period of the "kitchen middens" of modern aspect, such as are now exposed on the slopes behind the sea-beaches, and on the inland camping grounds. Almost all the records of Australian human remains that have been found in other than ordinary burial places, have proved to be of comparatively recent date. For example, the partially lime-encrusted body found in the cave in the Mosquito Plains, north of Penola, South Australia, recorded by Tenison Woods, is that of an aborigine who, in the early days of settlement, crawled into the cave in a wounded condition. Other occurrences of human remains in caves, but of fairly recent date are, a child's skull found in a small cave at Bungonia, Co. Argyle, New South Wales, recorded by Etheridge; and the non-petrified limb-bones found in a cave at Wellington, New South Wales, recorded by Krefft, which were probably washed in from the surface in recent times. As regards the former, in Western Australia, as observed by Froggatt, the natives at the present time seek shelter in caves, where these occur, instead of building mia-mias.

A more interesting, because probably much older, occurrence of human remains has been described by Etheridge and Trickett from one of the Jenolan Caves (Skeleton Cave); and those authors conclude from "The great lapse of time that must have accrued to enable the changes already outlined to have taken place since the introduction of the remains into the Skeleton Cave," that these remains are ancient.

Warrnambool, Victoria. 1/9 nat. size.

(F. C. Photo). (Warrnambool Museum). ]

Curious footprints supposed to resemble impressions of human feet with accompanying impress as if made by natives seated, have been long known from the older sand-dune rock of Warrnambool. They were found at Kellas' Quarry, on the Port Fairy Road in 1890 and at a depth of 54 feet. In November, 1912, a further discovery of similar footprints were found at Messrs. Steere Bros.' Quarry, Warrnambool, at a depth of 10 feet, as a block of stone was being removed for building purposes. These footprints are even more obscure than those previously found, and it would be unsafe to affirm their human origin, although they are suggestive of such. Their antiquity is certainly great, since the lavas and tuffs of the Tower Hill district are found overlying this old dune-rock. Other footprints associated with these resemble those of the Dingo and a gigantic bird, possibly like Genyornis.

=Probable Origin of Aborigines.--=

Ethnology appears to throw more light upon the subject than does geology. Australia has in the past been peopled by two distinct types of man. (1), the ancestors of the Tasmanians, now alas, extinct, who according to some authorities came by way of Australia from Papua through the Malay Peninsula, passing over to Tasmania from the mainland before the separation caused by the subsidence of the Bass Strait area; and who were represented by a negroid or woolly-haired type: (2), the present aboriginals of Australia, showing affinities with the Dravidians of Southern India, a primitive race from whose original stock the white Caucasian races of Europe were derived. By intermarriage with a negroid race like the Melanesian, it is supposed that the black Caucasian gave rise to the present Australian mixed aboriginal type, with negroid features, but possessing the long black hair and keener intellect of the "melanochroi," as the dark Eurasian stock was termed by Huxley.

=Aboriginal Implements.--=

The stone implements fashioned by the Tasmanian aboriginals were roughly chipped and of primitive type, of such forms as used at the present day by the Bushmen of South Africa, and representing the eoliths and palaeoliths of early man in the south of England. The implements of the Australian aboriginals on the other hand include besides these both flakes and worked and polished tools, such as were produced by the Neolithic men of Europe, as contrasted with the typically rough palaeolithic tools of the Tasmanian, who never grooved his axes for hafting as did the Australian aboriginal. According to some authorities the Tasmanians represent palaeolithic or even eolithic man in the character of their implements; whilst the Australian resembles the Middle or Mousterian stage of early man in certain of their ethnological characters and in the forms of their implements, although a marked exception is seen in their manufacture of polished adzes, of the neolithic period and in the use of bone implements such as were used in Europe in Upper Palaeolithic times. So far no human remains or handiwork in the form of chipped implements have been found in other than superficial deposits, either in Tasmania or Australia. The incised bone-fragment found near Ballarat, in a bed of silt beneath a sheet of basalt which flowed from Mount Buninyong, is believed by some to be evidence of man's handiwork in the early Pleistocene, though by others thought to have been cut by the teeth of the "marsupial lion" (Thylacoleo). A stone axe of basalt, grooved for the purpose of mounting in a handle, was found in gravel at Ballarat at a depth of 22 inches from the surface. This, however, is no proof of man's antiquity, for superficial deposits of much greater depth are easily accumulated within a short period. Another implement was found at Maryborough in Queensland in gravels at a depth of 4 feet from the surface, but not below the basalt of the main lead. In this case it is believed that the implement may have fallen into a natural hollow or wombat-burrow. A bone pointer, such as used by native medicine men, was some years ago found buried in the Miocene marls of Waurn Ponds near Geelong. Its presence in so old a rock is easily explained from the fact that in the aboriginal ceremonies the pointer was buried after the incantations. Seeing the difficulties in the way of discovering reliable occurrences of man's handiwork in isolated examples amongst the older superficial deposits of silt and gravels, the ancient sand-dunes of Victoria, which date back at least to Upper Pliocene, should afford favourable conditions for the preservation of any really ancient kitchen middens, did such exist. Moreover, these deposits would have been less liable to disturbance when once they were covered, than the inland deposits, for the former are now consolidated into a tolerably hard stone.

=Antiquity of Man in Australia.--=

A strong argument in favour of a considerable antiquity for man in Australia is the fact that the dialects are many, and marriage and tribal customs more complex and intricate than would be found in a comparatively recent primitive race. In any case, it is quite possible, if not probable, that man was in southern Australia before the termination of the last phase of volcanic activity, since the tuff beds of Koroit, for example, are quite modern and were laid down on a modern sea-beach strewn with shells identical in species and condition with those now found thrown up in the vicinity at high tide. This view is quite compatible with the occurrence of dingo remains (assuming this animal was introduced by man) in cave deposits in Australia, associated with extinct forms of marsupials.

* * * * *

COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.

FISHES.

Thyestes magnificus, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.

Asterolepis australis, McCoy. Middle Devonian: Victoria.

Ganorhynchus süssmilchi, Etheridge fil. Devonian: New South Wales.

Gyracanthides murrayi, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.

Acanthodes australis, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.

Ctenodus breviceps, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.

Strepsodus decipiens, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.

Elonichthys sweeti, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.

Physonemus micracanthus, Chapman. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.

(?) Deltodus australis, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: Queensland.

Tomodus (?) convexus, Agassiz. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

Edestus davisii, H. Woodward. Carbopermian: W. Australia.

Peocilodus jonesi, Agassiz. Carbopermian: W. Australia.

Gosfordia truncata, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.

Myriolepis clarkei, Egerton. Triassic: New South Wales.

Apateolepis australis, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.

Dictyopyge robusta, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.

Belonorhynchus gigas, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.

Semionotus australis, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.

Pristisomus latus, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.

Cleithrolepis granulatus, Egerton. Triassic: New South Wales.

Pholidophorus gregarius, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.

Pleuracanthus parvidens, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.

Sagenodus laticeps, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.

Palaeoniscus crassus, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.

Elonichthys armatus, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.

Elpisopholis dunstani, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.

Pholidophorus australis, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.

Psilichthys selwyni, Hall. Jurassic: Victoria.

Leptolepis crassicauda, Hall. Jurassic: Victoria.

Ceratodus avus, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: Victoria.

Coccolepis australis, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South Wales.

Aphnelepis australis, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South Wales.

Aetheolepis mirabilis, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South Wales.

Archaeomaene tenuis, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South Wales.

Leptolepis talbragarensis, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South Wales.

Lamna daviesii, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

Lamna appendiculatus, Agassiz. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

Corax australis, Chapm. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

Aspidorhynchus sp. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

Belonostomus sweeti, Eth. fil. and A. S. Woodw. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

Portheus australis, A. S. Woodw. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

Cladocyclus sweeti, A. S. Woodw. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

Notidanus marginalis, Davis. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

Lamna compressa, Agassiz. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

Callorhynchus hectori, Newton. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

Ischyodus thurmanni, Pictet and Campiche. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

Odontaspis contortidens, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Bal. and Janj.): Victoria.

Lamna apiculata, Ag. sp. Cainozoic (Bal. and Janj.): Victoria. Also Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

Carcharodon megalodon, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Bal. Janj. and Kal.): Victoria. Also Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

Cestracion cainozoicus, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Janj. and Kal.): Victoria.

Asteracanthus eocaenicus, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Janj. and Kal.): Victoria.

Galeocerdo davisi, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Janj.): Victoria. Also Cretaceous (Waipara Series) and Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

Carcharoides totuserratus, Ameghino. Cainozoic (Janj.): Victoria.

Odontaspis incurva, Davis sp. Cainozoic (Janj. and Kal.): Victoria. Also Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

Oxyrhina retroflexa, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Janj.): Victoria. Also Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

Carcharodon auriculatus, Blainville sp. Cainozoic (Janj. and Kal.): Victoria.

Acanthias geelongensis, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Janj.): Victoria.

Ischyodus mortoni, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Janj.): Tasmania.

Notidanus jenningsi, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

Galeocerdo aduncus, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

Oxyrhina hastalis, Agassiz. Cainozoic (rare in Balc. and Janj., abundant in Kal.): Victoria.

Myliobatis moorabbinensis, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

Edaphodon sweeti, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

Labrodon confertidens, Chap. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

Diodon formosus, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

Notidanus marginalis, Davis. Cretaceous (Waipara Series); and Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

Myliobatis plicatilis, Davis. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

Sargus laticonus, Davis. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

Ctenolates avus, A. S. Woodw. Pleistocene: New South Wales.

Neoceratodus forsteri, Krefft, sp. Pleistocene: New South Wales.

AMPHIBIA.

Bothriceps australis, Huxley. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

Bothriceps major, A. S. Woodw. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

Platyceps wilkinsoni, Stephens. Triassic: New South Wales.

REPTILIA.

Ichthyosaurus hectori, Ch. (nom. mut.). Triassic: New Zealand.

(?) Megalosaurus sp. Jurassic: Victoria.

Notochelone costata, Owen sp. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

Ichthyosaurus australis, McCoy. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

Ichthyosaurus marathonensis, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

Cimoliosaurus leucoscopelus, Eth. fil. Upper Cretaceous: New South Wales.

Plesiosaurus australis, Owen. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

Polycotylus tenuis, Hector. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

Cimoliosaurus haastii, Hector sp. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

Tylosaurus haumuriensis, Hector sp. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

Taniwhasaurus oweni, Hector. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

Pallymnarchus pollens, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland and Victoria.

Crocodilus porosus, Schneider. Pleistocene: Queensland and Victoria.

Miolania oweni, A. S. Woodw. Pliocene (Deep-leads): New South Wales. Pleistocene: Queensland.

Miolania platyceps, Owen. Pleistocene: Lord Howe Island.

Megalania prisca, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland.

BIRDS.

Palaeeudyptes antarcticus, Huxley. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

Dinornis sp. Cainozoic (Petane Series): New Zealand.

Pelecanus proavis, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.

Platalea subtenuis, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.

Anas elapsa, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.

Gallinula strenuipes, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.

Fulica prior, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.

Dromornis australis, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland and New South Wales.

Dromaeus patricius, De Vis. Pleistocene. Queensland.

Dromaeus minor, Spencer. Pleistocene: King Island.

Genyornis newtoni, Stirling and Zietz. Pleistocene: S. Australia.

Cnemiornis calcitrans, Owen. Pleistocene: New Zealand.

Harpagornis moorei, von Haast. Pleistocene: New Zealand.

Aptornis otidiformis, Owen sp. Pleistocene: New Zealand.

Dinornis giganteus, Owen. Pleistocene and Holocene: N. Id., New Zealand.

Pachyornis elephantopus, Owen sp. Pleistocene and Holocene: S. Id., New Zealand.

Anomalopteryx antiqua, Hutton. Pleistocene: S. Id., New Zealand.

MAMMALIA.

Ornithorhynchus maximus, Dun. Cainozoic (Kalimnan or L. Pliocene): New South Wales.

Echidna (Proechidna) robusta, Dun. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): New South Wales.

Ornithorhynchus agilis, De Vis. Pleistocene: New South Wales.

Echidna (Proechidna) oweni, Krefft. Pleistocene: New South Wales.

Wynyardia bassiana, Spencer. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): Tasmania.

Dasyurus maculatus, Kerr sp. Pleistocene: Victoria and New South Wales. Living: Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania.

Phascolomys pliocenus, McCoy. Cainozoic (Werrikooian): Victoria.

Sarcophilus ursinus, Harris sp. Pleistocene: Victoria and New South Wales. Living: Tasmania.

Thylacinus cynocephalus, Harris sp. Pleistocene: Victoria and New South Wales. Living: Tasmania.

Thylacinus spelaeus, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland and New South Wales.

Thylacinus major, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland.

Peragale lagotis, Reid sp. Pleistocene: New South Wales. Living: S. Australia and W. Australia.

Perameles gunni, Gray. Pleistocene: Victoria. Living: Queensland and Victoria.

Phascolomys parvus, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland.

Phascolonus gigas, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South Wales and S. Australia.

Macropus titan, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, Victoria, New South Wales and S. Australia.

Macropus anak, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, S. Australia and New South Wales.

Procoptodon goliah, Owen sp. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria.

Sthenurus atlas, Owen sp. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia.

Sthenurus occidentalis, Glauert. Pleistocene: W. Australia.

Palorchestes azael, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria.

Diprotodon australis, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and S. Australia.

Nototherium mitchelli, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, S. Australia and Victoria.

Thylacoleo carnifex, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and W. Australia.

Parasqualodon wilkinsoni, McCoy sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria and Tasmania.

Metasqualodon harwoodi, Sanger sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian): S. Australia.

Kekenodon onamata, Hector. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

Cetotolithes nelsoni, McCoy. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.

Ziphius (Dolichodon) geelongensis, McCoy. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.

Scaldicetus macgeei, Chapm. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): Victoria.

Chronozoön australis, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.

Canis dingo, Blumenbach. Late Pleistocene or Holocene: Victoria.

Otaria forsteri, Lesson. Pliocene (Petane Series): N. Id., New Zealand.

Arctocephalus williamsi, McCoy. Pleistocene: Victoria.

* * * * *

LITERATURE.

FISHES.

Silurian.--Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVIII. (N.S.), pt. II. 1906, pp. 93-100, pls. VII. and VIII. (Thyestes).

Devonian.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. IV. 1876, pp. 19, 20, pl. XXXV. figs. 7, 7a, 7b (Asterolepis). Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. VI. pp. 129-132, pl. XXVIII. (Ganorhynchus).

Carboniferous and Carbopermian.--Woodward, H. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. III. 1886, pp. 1-7, pl. I. (Edestus). Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, p. 296, pl. XXXIX. fig. 1 (Deltodus). De Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898, p. 281, pl. XXIV., fig. 11 (Tomodus). Woodward, A. S. Mem. Nat. Mus. Melbourne, No. 1. 1906 (Mansfield Series).

Triassic.--Johnston, R. M. and Morton, A. Proc. R. Soc. Tasmania (1889), 1890, pp. 102-104; ibid. (1890), 1891, pp. 152-154 (Acrolepis). Woodward, A. S. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 4, 1890 (Gosford). Ibid. No. 10, 1908 (St. Peters).

Jurassic.--Woodward, A. S. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 9, 1895. Id., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. VII. Vol. XVIII. 1906, pp. 1-3, pl. I. (Ceratodus). Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol. XII. (N.S.) pt. II. 1900, pp. 147-151, pl. XIV. Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict. vol. III. pt. 2, 1912, pp. 234-235, pl. XXXIX. (Ceratodus).

Cretaceous.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. III. ser. 2, 1889, pp. 156-161, pl. IV. Idem, Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 503-504. Davis, J. W. Trans. R. Dubl. Soc. vol. IV. ser. 2. 1888, pp. 1-48, pls. I.-VII. (Cretaceous and Cainozoic of New Zealand). Etheridge, R. jnr. and Woodward, A. S. Trans. R. Soc. Vict., vol. II. pt. II. 1892, pp. 1-7, pl. I. (Belonostomus). Woodward, A. S. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, vol. XIX. 1894, pp. 444-447, pl. X. (Portheus and Cladocyclus). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXI. (N.S.), pt. II. 1909, pp. 452, 453 (Corax).

Cainozoic.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. II. 1875, pp. 8-10, pl. XI. (Carcharodon). Chapman, F. and Pritchard, G. B. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVII. (N.S.), pt. I. 1904, pp. 267-297, pls. V.-VIII. Idem, ibid, vol. XX. (N.S.), pt. I. 1907, pp. 59-75, pls. V.-VIII. See also Davis, J. W. (Cretaceous).

Pleistocene.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, p. 646 (Neoceratodus). Woodward, A. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VII. pt. 2, 1902, pp. 88-91, pl. XXIV. (Ctenolates).

AMPHIBIA.

Huxley, T. H. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XV. 1859, pp. 647-649, pl. XXII. figs. 1, 2 (Bothriceps). Stephens, W. J. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, ser. 2. vol. I. 1886, pp. 931-940. Ibid., 1887, pp. 1175-1182, pl. XXII. Ibid., vol. II. 1887, pp. 156-158. Woodward, A. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VIII. pt. 4, 1909, pp. 317-319, pl. LI. (Bothriceps).

REPTILIA.

Jurassic and Cretaceous.--Hector, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. VI. 1874, pp. 333-358.

Cretaceous.--McCoy, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vic., vol. VIII. pt. I. 1868, p. 42 (Plesiosaurus). Ibid., vol. IX. pt. II. 1869, p. 77 (Ichthyosaurus). Owen, R. Geol. Mag., Dec. I. vol. VII. 1870, pp. 49-53, pl. III. (Plesiosaurus). Id., Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. XXXVIII. 1882, pp. 178-183 ("Notochelys" = Notochelone). Etheridge, R. jnr. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, ser. 2, vol. III. 1889, pp. 405-413, pls. VII. and VIII. (Ichthyosaurus). Id., Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 505-510. Hutton, F. W. Trans. N.Z. Inst. vol. XXVI. 1894, pp. 354-358, 1 pl. (Cimoliosaurus).

Pleistocene.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. I. pt. 3, 1889, pp. 149-152 (Miolania). Id., Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 647-653.

AVES.

Miocene.--Huxley, T. H. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. XV. 1859, pp. 670-677. Also Hector, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst. vol. IV. 1872, pp. 341-346, 1 pl. (Palaeeudyptes). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. (N.S.) pt. I. 1910, pp. 21-26, pls. IV. and V.

Pleistocene and Holocene.--Von Haast, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. IV., 1872, pp. 192-196; and vol. VI. 1874, pp. 62-75 (Harpagornis). Owen, R. Memoirs on the Extinct Wingless Birds of New Zealand, London, 1879, 2 vols. De Vis, C. W. Proc. R. Soc. Queensland, vol. VI. pt. I. 1889, pp. 6-8. Id., Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. III. ser. 2, 1888, pp. 1277-1292, pls. XXXIII.-XXXVI. (Carinatae). Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. I. pt. 2, 1889, pp. 126-136, pls. XI.-XIII. (Dromornis). Id., Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 653-663. Hutton, F. W. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. XXIV. 1892, pp. 93-172 (Moas). Id., ibid., vol. XXV. 1893, pp. 14-16, 1 pl. (Anomalopteryx). Id., ibid., vol. XXIX. 1897, pp. 441-557, figs. (Moas). Id., ibid., vol. XXXVIII. 1906, pp. 66 and 67 (Emeus crassus). Hamilton, A. Ibid, vol. XXVI. 1894, pp. 227-257 (Bibliography of Moas). Ibid, vol. XXX. 1898, pp. 445 and 446 (Euryapteryx). Stirling, E. C. and Zietz, A. H. C. Mem. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. I. pt. II. 1900, pp. 41-80, pls. XIX.-XXIV. (Genyornis). Spencer, W. B. Vict. Nat. vol. XXIII. 1906, pp. 139 and 140; also Spencer, W. B. and Kershaw, J. A. Mem. Nat. Mus. Melbourne No. 3, 1910, pp. 5-35, pls. I.-VII. (Dromaeus minor).

MAMMALS.

Huxley, T. H. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XV. 1859, pp. 676-677 (Phocaenopsis). McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. I. 1874, pp. 21, 22, pls. III.-V. (Phascolomys). Ibid, Dec. II. 1875, pp. 7-8, pl. XI. and Dec. VI. 1879, pp. 20 and 21, pl. LV. (Squalodon). Ibid, Dec. III. 1876, pp. 7-12, pl. XXI. (Thylacoleo). Ibid, Dec. IV. 1876, pp. 7-11, pl. XXXI.-XXXIII. (Diprotodon). Ibid, Dec. V. 1877, pp. 7-9, pl. XLI. and XLII. (Arctocephalus). Ibid, Dec. VI. 1879, pp. 5-7, pl. LI. (Macropus): pp. 9-11, pl. LI.-LIII. (Procoptodon): pp. 13-17, pl. LIV. (Cetotolithes); pp. 19 and 20, pl. LV. (Physetodon). Ibid, Dec. VII. 1882, pp. 7-10, pl. LX. (Canis dingo): pp. 11-13, pl. LXXII. and LXII. (Sarcophilus): pp. 23-26, pl. LIX. (Ziphius). Owen, R. Extinct Mammals of Australia, London 1877, 2 vols. Hector, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. XIII. 1881, pp. 434-436, 1 pl. (Kekenodon). Lydekker, R. Cat. Foss. Mammalia, Brit. Mus. part V. 1887. Id., Handbook to the Marsupialia, and Monotremata. Allen's Nat. Library, 1894, pt. III. pp. 249-286. De Vis, C. W. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. VIII. pt. 3, 1883, p. 395 (Sirenian). Id., ibid, vol. X. 1895, pp. 75-133, pls. XIV.-XVIII. (Macropodidae). Id., Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XII. (N.S.), pt. I, 1899, pp. 107-11 (Marsupials). Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 663-683 (Pleistocene Mammals). Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. III. pt. 4, 1893, pp. 120-124, pl. XVI. (Palorchestes). Ibid., vol. IV. pt. 3, 1895, pp. 118-126, pls. XI. and XII. (Monotremes). Stirling, E. C. and Zietz, A. H. C. Mem. Roy. Soc. S. Australia, vol. I. pt. I. 1899 (Descr. of Diprotodon, Manus and Pes.). Spencer, W. B. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1900, pp. 776-794, pls. XLIX. and L. (Wynyardia). Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol. XXIII. (N.S.), pt. II. 1911, pp. 257-265, pl. XXXVI. (Rev. of Squalodontidae). Spencer, W. B. and Walcott, R. H. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXIV. (N.S.), pt. I. 1912, pp. 92-123, pls. XXXVI.-XXIX. (Thylacoleo). Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. III. pt. 2, 1912, pp. 236-238, pl. XL. (Scaldicetus). Woods, J. E. T. Geol. Observations in S. Australia, 1862, pp. 329 and 330 (Human Remains): also Krefft, G. Australian Vertebrata, Recent and Fossil, 1867, p. 91; Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. III. pt. 4, 1893, pp. 128-132; Etheridge, R. jnr. and Trickett, O. Ibid., vol. VII. pt. 4, 1904, pp. 325-328.

APPENDIX.--ON THE COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF FOSSILS.

The tools and other paraphernalia necessary for fossil collecting are fortunately within the reach of all. The principal of these is a geological hammer, preferably with a pick at one end of the head and the opposite end square-faced. The pick end is useful for digging out fossils from soft clays, or for extracting a block of fossils entire. The square end is employed for breaking up the slabs or masses containing fossils. To get good results, much will of course depend upon one's skill in striking the right face of a block. If bedding planes are present on the lump from which we wish to extract our fossils, it will be well to strike at right angles to these layers in order to split them asunder, thus exposing a shell-layer corresponding to the original surface of the ancient sea-bed upon which the organisms accumulated. In some cases the splitting of fossiliferous rocks may be best carried out with the pick end, provided it be not too sharply curved. The hammer should be faced with steel, for many fossiliferous rocks, especially compact limestones, are apt to severely try the temper of an ill-made tool.

A chisel, of chilled steel, should accompany the hammer, since this is often of the greatest use in working out large fossils, more particularly those that are buried in a cliff or quarry face. The process of extracting difficult specimens should never be hurried, for one often gets surprisingly good results with a little extra care.

A strong pocket knife may be used in trimming specimens and partially cleaning shells that can be safely manipulated on the spot, but the final cleaning should be left until the return home. The knife is also useful for cleaning slates and shales, since the chisel-edge is frequently a trifle too thick for this kind of work.

For the more delicate fossils, means for careful packing should be provided; chip-boxes and cotton-wool being indispensable for the smaller specimens. A ready method of packing the fossils obtained from the friable, sandy tertiary deposits is to store them in tins, the contents of which can be firmly secured from rattling by filling up with sand. This sand, however, should be taken from the same bed in which the fossils occur, so as to get no admixture of the smaller shells from another formation or deposit; for although we may not wish to examine the finer material ourselves, it will yield in many cases a rich harvest to our microscopical friends, such residues containing microzoa, as shells of foraminifera, polyzoa and carapaces of the ostracoda. The residues referred to may be obtained from many of our marls and rubbly limestones by the simple process of washing in water, and repeatedly pouring off the finest clayey mud, until only a sandy deposit remains, which can then be dried and sorted over by the aid of a lens or low power microscope.

=Hints on Fossil Collecting.--=

As regards the places most suitable for collecting fossils, the Cainozoic beds are perhaps, the most accessible to a beginner, especially in Victoria. For instance, the cliff exposures at Beaumaris, Port Phillip, will afford a plentiful supply of the little heart-shaped sea-urchin, Lovenia, and an occasional Trigonia and Limopsis, as well as many other fossils of the great group of the shell-fish or mollusca. The richest bed containing the sharks' teeth at the above locality is almost perpetually covered with a bed of shingle, but can be reached by digging at the cliff-base. Isolated specimens, however, although rather the worse for wear, may often be picked up amongst the shingle, having been washed up from the foreshore by the tide. An enticing band of large bivalve shells (Dosinea), can be seen halfway up the cliffs, near the baths at this locality, but are somewhat disappointing, for when obtained they crumble to pieces in the hand, since their shells are composed of the changeable form of carbonate of lime called aragonite, which has decomposed in place in the bed, after the shells were covered up by the deposit.

Good collections of shells of the Balcombian series may be easily made at Balcombe's Bay and Grice's Creek, Port Phillip. They can there be dug out of the grey-blue clay with a knife, and afterwards cleaned at leisure by means of a soft tooth brush dipped in water. In the cement stone at the same place there are numerous shells of pteropods or "sea-butterflies" (Vaginella), and specimens of the stone may be obtained, showing myriads of the porcelain-like shells, and also their internal casts in the hard greenish coloured matrix.

The ferruginous or ironstone beds seen in the Flemington Railway cutting, Melbourne, is an old marine shell-bank, resting on basalt. The shells have all been dissolved away, and only their casts and moulds remain. These impressions are, however, so faithfully moulded that the ornamentation of each shell can often be reproduced on a squeeze taken with a piece of modelling wax or plasticine. Such fossil remains are easily collected by carefully breaking up the blocks of ironstone with a hammer.

Quarries in the older limestones and mudstones in Victoria, New South Wales and other States, are often good hunting grounds for fossils. The quarry at Cave Hill, Lilydale, for example, will be found very profitable, for the limestone is full of corals and molluscan shells; whilst the friable or rubbly portion is worth breaking down for the smaller fossils. The bed-rock (Silurian) of Melbourne is in places very fossiliferous; the sandstones of Moonee Ponds Creek generally affording a fair number of brachiopods, and occasionally corals. The mudstones of South Yarra, Studley Park, Yan Yean, and other places on the same geological horizon, contain a rich fauna, to be obtained only by the assiduous collector who will search over and break up a large number of blocks. Practice in this work makes a good collector; although of course one must know something about the objects looked for, since many apparently obscure fossil remains of great interest might easily be passed over for lack of knowledge as to what should be expected to occur at each particular locality.

Many other good collecting grounds might here be alluded to, but we have purposely cited only a few near Melbourne, since a selection from other parts of Australasia may easily be made from the localities mentioned in connection with the various groups of fossils dealt with in the systematic portion of this work.

=Preservation of Fossils.--=

Many of the Cainozoic fossils from the shelly sands and clays are extremely delicate, owing in some cases to their being imperfectly preserved, seeing that they frequently contain in their shell-structure layers of the unstable form of carbonate of lime called aragonite. Fossils containing aragonite are:--Calcareous Sponges; Corals; Bivalved shells, except Oysters, Pectens, and the outer layer of Spondylus, Pinna, and Mytilus; Gasteropods (with a few exceptions); and Cephalopods. In some of these, however, a transformation of the aragonite into calcite enables the fossil to be permanently preserved. The delicate fossils referred to should be dipped in weak glue or gelatine and left to dry; after which their final cleaning can be done with the aid of a little warm water and a soft brush.

Certain of the clays and mudstones, both of Cainozoic and Jurassic ages which show remains of plants, such as leaves and fern fronds, are often best treated with a thin surface layer of paper varnish, before they lose the natural moisture of the rock; for when they become perfectly dry the thin carbonaceous film representing the original leaf-substance peels off, and the fossil is consequently destroyed. A method of treatment for Cainozoic leaves, by dipping them in warm vaseline and brushing off the superfluous material, has been described by Mr. H. Deane.

=Storing Fossils for Reference.--=

Fossils specimens are generally best displayed in cardboard trays; or if thin wooden paper-covered tablets are used, say of about 3-16in. thickness and cut to proportionate sizes, the fossils should be held in place by pins for easy removal, unless more than one example can be shown together, exhibiting all aspects, when they can be secured to the tablet by a touch of seccotine. The smaller shells may be displayed in glass topped boxes, which in turn may be stuck down to tablets or placed in trays.

INDEX.

Aboriginal implements, 303 Aborigines, probable origin of, 302 Acanthias, 270 Acanthodes, 261 Acanthosphaera, 103 Acanthothyris, 166, 167 Acentrophorus, 263 Acrolepis, 263 Actaeon, 197 Actinoceras, 205, 207 Actinocrinus, 136 Actinodesma, 178, 179 Actinopteria, 178, 179 Actinostroma, 121, 122 Adeona, 158 Aechmina, 237 Aeschna, 250 Aetheolepis, 267 Agathiceras, 207 AGNATHA, 258 Agnostus, 227 Allodesma, 176 Ambonychia, 177 Ammodiscus, 96, 97 Ammonites, 204, 209, 210 AMMONOIDEA, 205 Amoeba, 36, 95 AMPHIBIA, structure of, 272 Amphistegina, 100 Amplexus, 117 Ampyx, 229 Amusium, 185 Anas, 283 Anchura, 197 Ancilla, 198, 199, 202 Ancyloceras, 209, 210 ANGIOSPERMEAE, characters of, 40 ANNELIDA, 152 Anomalina, 98 Anomalopteryx, 283 Antedon, 138 ANTHOZOA, 64, 113 Antiquity of man in Australia, 304 Aparchites, 237 Apateolepis, 262 Aphnelepis, 267 Apocynophyllum, 91 Aptornis, 283 Aptychopsis, 246 Arabellites, 153 Arachnoides, 146 Araucarioxylon, 68 Araucarites, 89 Arca, 184, 186, 188 Archaeocidaris, 144 Archaeocyathina, 113 ARCHAEOCYATHINAE, 112 Archaeomaene, 267 Archaeopteryx, 280 Arctocephalus, 299 Arenicolites, 153 Argillaceous rocks, 69 Argilloecia, 237 ?Argiope, 166 Argonauta, 205 ARTHROPODA, structure and subdivisions of, 38, 220 Asaphus, 227, 228 Aspidorhynchus, 267 Astarte, 182 Asteracanthus, 269, 271 ASTEROIDEA, 139 Asterolepis, 258 Astralium, 198, 200 Astropecten, 141 Athyris, 161, 162, 165 Atrypa, 158, 160, 162 Aturia, 210 Atys, 204 Aucella, 183 Aulopora, 116 Australian fossiliferous strata, 45-48. AVES, 280 Aviculopecten, 179, 180 Axopora, 119

Bactronella, 112 Baculites, 210 Baiera, 89, 164 Bairdia, 240 Balanophyllia, 118 Balanus, 243 Balcombian bivalves, 186 " gasteropods, 199 Bandicoot, 289, 295 Bankivia, 201 Banksia, 91, 281 Barbatia, 184, 185 Barnacles, 240 Barnea, 187 Bathytoma, 201 Bela, 201 Belemnites, 205, 209, 210 BELEMNOIDEA, 205 Bellerophon, 193, 194, 195, 196 Belonorhynchus, 262 Belonostomus, 267 Bettongia, 295 Beyrichia, 235, 236, 237 Biloela, 274 Bipora, 158 Birds, fossil, 53, 280 Biziura, 283 BLASTOIDEA, distribution and characters of, 61, 138 Blue-green Algae, 76, 82 Bog iron-ore, 80 Bolodon, 286 Bombax, 91 Bone-beds, 78 Bone-breccias, 79 Bothriceps, 273 Botryocrinus, 136 BRACHIOPODA, structure of, 57, 158 Brachiopod limestone, 74 Brachymetopus, 232 Brachyphyllum, 89 Bracken fern, 91 Brissopsis, 148 Brittle-stars, characters of, 61, 141 Bronteus, 229, 230 Bryograptus, 124, 126, 227 BRYOPHYTA, characters of, 39 Buccinum, 191 Buchozia, 199 Bulimina, 97, 98 Bulinus, 69, 191 Bulla, 204 Bullinella, 198, 199 Bythocypris, 236 Bythotrephis, 82

Cainozoic Balanidae, 243 " bird, Victoria, 281 " bivalves, 184 " brachiopods, 166 " brittle-stars, 143 " chitons, 190 " corals, 118 " crabs, 247 " echinoids, irregular, 146 " echinoids, regular, 145 " fishes, 269 " Foraminifera, 99 " gasteropods, 198 " gasteropods, New Zealand, 202 " Holothuroidea, 148 " insects, 250 " Lepadidae, 243 " Ostracoda, 239 " and Pleistocene reptiles, 279 " plants, 89 " Polyzoa, 158 Cainozoic Radiolaria, 104 " scaphopods, 189 " sponges, 110 " starfishes, 141 " strata, 45, 46 Calcareous rocks, 72 " sponges, 112 Callograptus, 122 Callorhynchus, 269 Calymene, 229, 230, 231 CALYPTOBLASTEA, 122 Calyptraea, 198, 200, 201 Camarotoechia, 160, 161, 162 Cambrian bivalves, 177 " brachiopods, 159 " crinoids, 134 " Foraminifera, 96 " gasteropods, 192 " Ostracoda, 235 " plants, 82 " Radiolaria, 102 " sponges, 107 Cameroceras, 207 Campanularia, 122 Campophyllum, 115, 117 Cancellaria, 198, 199, 202 Canis, 298 Cannel coal, 76 Capitosaurus, 274 Capulus, 194 Carbonaceous rocks, 76 Carboniferous brachiopods, 162 " crinoids, 136 " fishes, 259 " Foraminifera, 96 " gasteropods, 196 " Ostracoda, 237 " plants, 85 Carbopermian bivalves, 179 " blastoids, 139 " brachiopods, 163 " cephalopods, 207 " corals, 116 " crinoids, 137 " fishes, 261 " Foraminifera, 97 " gasteropods, 196 " labyrinthodonts, 273 " Ostracoda, 237 " palaeechinoids, 144 " Phyllopoda, 233 " plants, 86 " sponges, 110 " starfishes, 141 " trilobites, 232 Carcharodon, 269, 270, 271 Carcharoides, 269 Cardiola, 177, 178 Cardita, 184, 187 Cardium, 176, 184, 186, 187 CARNIVORA, 298 Carposphaera, 102 Carpospongia, 109 Caryocaris, 244, 246 Cassidulus, 148 Catenicella, 158 Cellaria, 158 Cellepora, 158 Cenellipsis, 102 Cenosphaera, 102, 103 CEPHALOPODA, characters of, 204 Ceratiocaris, 246 Ceratodus, 265, 267 Ceratotrochus, 118 Cerithiopsis, 200 Cerithium, 198, 200 Cestracion, 261, 269, 271 CETACEA, 295 Cetotolithes, 296 Chaenomya, 181 CHAETOPODA, 152 Chama, 185 Changes of climate in the past, 31 CHEILOSTOMATA, 155, 157 Cheirurus, 229, 231 Chelodes, 190 Cherts, 71 Chione, 185, 187, 188 Chiridota, 148 Chironomus, 250 Chiton, 190 Chonetes, 160, 161, 162 CHORDATA, 257 Chosornis, 283 Chronozoön, 298 Cicada, 250 Cidaris, 145 Cimoliosaurus, 279 Cinnamomum, 91 Cinulia, 197 CIRRIPEDIA, habits and structure of, 240 Cladochonus, 117 Cladophlebis, 89, 164, 182 CLADOPHORA, 122 Classification of animals, 35 Clathrodictyon, 121 Clausilia, 191 Clavigera, 165 Clays, 69 Cleiothyris, 164 Cleithrolepis, 262, 263, 274 Climacograptus, 127 Climatius, 258 Clonograptus, 123, 124, 126 Clypeaster, 146 Cnemiornis, 283 Coals, 76 Coccolepis, 267 Cocconema, 92 Coccosteus, 259 COELENTERATA, characters of, 37 Coleolus, 193 Collecting fossils, 317 Colubraria, 199 Columbarium, 198, 201, 202 Columbella, 198 Conchothyra, 184 Conocardium, 177, 178 Conodonts, 153 Conosmilia, 118 Conularia, 193, 194, 196 Conus, 198, 199, 202, 204 Coprosmaephyllum, 90 Coral limestone, 73 Corals, 64, 113 Corax, 267 Corbicula, 182 Corbula, 177, 185, 187, 188 Cordaites, 85 Cornulites, 154 Coscinocyathus, 113 Coxiella, 69 Crassatellites, 176, 184 Crenella, 176 Crepicephalus, 227 Crepidula, 198 Cretaceous (Lower and Upper) cephalopods, 209 " cephalopods, New Zealand, 210 " Cheilostomata, 157 " crinoids, 137 " echinoids (irregular), 146 " (Lower) fishes, 267 " fishes, New Zealand, 268 " Foraminifera, 98 " gasteropods, 197 " plants, 89 " Radiolaria, 103 " (Lower) reptiles, 277 " reptiles, New Zealand, 279 " scaphopods, 189 " sponges, 110 Crinoidal limestone, 74 CRINOIDEA, occurrence and structure of, 61, 133 Crioceras, 209 Crisia, 158 Cristellaria, 98 Crocodilus, 279 Cromus, 229 Crustacea, an archaic group, 221 " development of, 221 " fossil, 54 Cryptodon, 186 Cryptograptus, 127 Cryptoplax, 190 Cryptostomata, 155, 156 Ctenodonta, 177, 178 Ctenodus, 261, 263 Ctenolates, 272 Ctenostreon, 182 Cucullaea, 182, 184, 185 Cultellus, 188 Cuna, 184, 186, 187 Cupressinoxylon, 78, 89 Cupressus, 91 Cuscus, 295 Cuttle-fishes, 205 CYANOPHYCEAE, 82 Cyathocrinus, 137 Cyathophyllum, 113, 115, 117 Cyclas, 69 Cycloceras, 206 Cyclolituites, 207 Cyclometopa, 248 Cyclonema, 194 CYCLOSTOMATA, 155 Cydnus, 250 Cymbella, 92 Cyphaspis, 229 Cyphon, 250 Cypraea, 191, 198, 199, 200, 202 Cypricardinia, 178 Cyprid limestone, 75 Cyrenopsis, 184 Cyrtoceras, 204, 207 Cyrtograptus, 128 Cyrtina, 162, 164 Cyrtolites, 193 Cystideans, 61 Cystiphyllum, 116 Cythere, 239, 240 Cytherella, 240 ?Cytheridea, 238 Cytheropteron, 239

Dadoxylon, 68 Dalmanites, 224, 225, 229, 231 Daonella, 182 Darter, 283 ?Darwinula, 238 Dasyurus, 287, 295 DECAPODA, 246 Deep Leads, fruits of, 91 " insects from, 250 Deltodus, 261 Deltopecten, 180 Dendrocrinus, 134, 135 Dendrocygna, 283 Dendrograptus, 122 Dendrophyllia, 119 Dennantia, 198 Dentalium, 189 Dentition of Reptiles, 275 Deontopora, 120 Desmoceras, 209 Devonian bivalves, 178 " brachiopods, 161 " cephalopods, 207 " corals, 115 " crinoids, 136 " fishes, 258 " gasteropods, 195 " Ostracoda, 237 " plants, 85 " Radiolaria, 102 " scaphopods, 189 " stromatoporoids, 121 " trilobites, 231 DIADACTYLA, 287 Diatomite, 72 Diatoms, 92 Dicellograptus, 126, 127 Dichograptus, 126 Dicranograptus, 126, 127 Dictyonema, and allies, 122 Dictyopyge, 262 Didymograptus, 124, 126 ?Didymosorus, 89 Dielasma, 164, 165 Dikellocephalus, 227 Dimetrodon, 276 Dimya, 184, 185, 186 Dinesus, 227 Dingo, 298, 305 Dinornis, 281, 282, 283, 299 Diodon, 270, 271 Dione, 188 Diphyphyllum, 113 Diplograptus, 124, 126, 127, 128 Diprotodon, 51, 290, 293 Diprotodon-breccias, 203 DIPROTODONTIA, 287 Discina, 166 Discorbina, 98 Dissocheilus, 199 Dithyrocaris, 246 Ditrupa, 154 Ditrupa limestone, 74 Dolichodon, 296 Dolichometopus, 226 Dolium, 201 Donax, 175, 187 Dorsetensia, 209 Dosinea, 185, 188 Drillia, 198, 202 Dromaeus, 282, 283 Dromornis, 282 Duck, 283 Duncaniaster, 147

Ear-bones of whales, 296 Early observers, 24 Eburnopsis, 199, 200 Echidna, 286, 287 Echinocyamus, 146 ECHINODERMATA, characters of, 37, 59 " divisions of, 133 ECHINOIDEA, 143 Echinolampas, 147, 148 Echinoneus, 147 Echinus, 145 Ecionema, 112 Edaphodon, 271 Edestus, 262 Edmondia, 177, 180, 182 Eglisia, 202 Elephant-fish, 269, 271 Elephant-tusk shells, 188 Elevated sea-beds, 27 Elonichthys, 261, 263 Elpisopholis, 263 Emarginula, 198 Emu, 283 Encrinurus, 229 Endoceras, 205 Endothyra, 96, 98 Entalophora, 158 Entomis, 238 Ephemera, 250 Equisetites, 40 Errant worms, 153 Erycina, 187 Erymnoceras, 209 Estheria, 233 Eucalyptus, 90, 91, 281 Eulima, 198 Eunema, 193 Eunicites, 153 Euomphalus, 194, 195, 196 Eupatagus, 147 Euphemus, 196 Eurydesma, 181 EURYPTERIDA, 248 Euthria, 198 Eutrochus, 200 Evolution of life-forms, 33

Fagus (Notofagus), 91 Falcon, 283 Fasciolaria, 198, 199 Favosites, 73, 114, 115, 116 Feather-star, 138 Fenestella, 156, 157 Fibularia, 146 Fishes, fossil, 53 " primitive types, 258 " true, 258 Fish-lizards, 275, 276, 277, 278 Fissilunula, 183, 184 Fissurellidea, 198 Fistulipora, 155, 156 Flabellina, 98 Flabellum, 118, 119 Flightless pigeon goose, 283 Flints, 71 Flying phalanger, 295 Foraminifera, characters of, 36, 95 " fossil, 65 Foraminiferal limestone, 73 Fossil faunas, differences in, 43 Fossiliferous strata, Australia, 45-48 " strata, New Zealand 49 Fossil, origin of name, 23 Fossils an index to age of strata, 26, 32 " nature of, 21 " petrifaction of, 23 " preservation of, 23 " structure preserved in, 24 Fossil wood, 24, 66, 68 Frondicularia, 97, 98 Fruits of the deep leads, 91 Fulica, 283 Fusus, 198, 201

Galeocerdo, 269, 271 Gallinula, 283 Gangamopteris, 86 Ganorhynchus, 259 Gari, 185 GASTEROPODA, characters of, 190 Gastrioceras, 207 Geinitzina, 98 Genyornis, 282, 302 Geological epochs, 45-49 Geology, scope of, 21 Giant kangaroo, 289 " lizard, 280 " penguin, 280 Gibbula, 198 Ginkgo, 89, 91 Girvanella, 76, 82, 86 Glauconite casts of foraminifera, 96 Glossograptus, 126, 127 Glossopteris, 86 Glycimeris, 184, 187 Glyphioceras, 207 Gomphonema, 93 Gondwana-Land, 87 Goniatites, 207, 208 Goniograptus, 124, 126 Gosfordia, 262 Gosseletina, 196 Grammysia, 177 Granatocrinus, 139 Graphularia, 118, 119 Graptolites, Bendigo series, 124 " Lancefield series, 124 " nature of, 63, 123 " Tasmania, 128 GRAPTOLITOIDEA, 123 Gregoriura, 142 Griffithides, 232 Gromia, 95 Ground pigeon, 283 Gryphaea, 182 Grypotherium, 53 Guide fossils, 43 GYMNOSPERMEAE, characters of, 40 Gyracanthides, 261 Gyroceras, 207 Gyrodoma, 194

Halimeda limestone, 75 Haliotis, 198, 200 Haliserites, 83 Halysites, 114 Hamites, 210 Hapalocrinus, 136 Haploceras, 209 Haplophragmium, 97, 98 Harpa, 198, 199, 201 Harpactocarcinus, 248 Harpagornis, 283 Hawk, 283 Helicocrinus, 136 Helicotoma, 195 Heliolites, 115, 116 Heliopora, 115 Heliosphaera, 103 Helix, 203 Hemiaster, 148 Hemipatagus, 148 Heterocrinus, 135 HETEROPODA, 190 Heteropora, 158 Hexactinellid sponge, 107, 110 Hinge-structure, in bivalves, 175 Holaster, 147 HOLOTHUROIDEA, 148 Homalonotus, 229, 231 Hornera, 158 Huenella, 159 Human remains, sub-recent, 299 Hyalostelia, 108, 110 Hybocrinus, 135 Hydractinia, 119, 120 HYDROZOA, 63, 119 Hymenocaris, 244 Hyperammina, 97 Hyolithes, 192, 193, 194 Hypothyris, 164 Hypsiprymnus, 295

Ibis, 283 Ichthyosaurus, 276, 277, 278 Idiostroma, 121 Idmonea, 158 Illaenus, 229 Indusial limestone, 75 Inoceramus, 183, 184 Insects, 53, 250 Ironstone, 80 Irregular echinoids, 146 Ischnochiton, 190 Ischyodus, 269, 270 Isochilina, 237 Isocrinus, 137, 138

Janjukian bivalves, 186 " gasteropods, 200 Jonesina, 237 Jurassic bird, 280 " bivalves, 182 " brachiopods, 165 " cephalopods, 208 " fishes, 264 " Foraminifera, 98 " gasteropods, 196 " insects, 250 " Ostracoda, 238 " Phyllopoda, 233 " plants, 89 " reptiles, 276 " scaphopods, 189

Kalimnan bivalves, 187 " gasteropods, 201 Kangaroo, 295 Keeneia, 196 Kekenodon, 295, 296 Kerosene shale, 77 Kionoceras, 206 Kloedenia, 237

Labrodon, 271 LABYRINTHODONTIA, 272 Lagena, 98 ?Lagria, 250 Lamna, 267, 269, 271 Lamp-shells, 57, 158 Lasiocladia, 110 Lasiograptus, 126, 127 Latirus, 198, 201 Laurus, 91 Leaia, 233 Leda, 182, 184, 185, 187, 188 Leonardo da Vinci, 25 Lepas, 243 Leperditella, 234 Leperditia, 233, 234, 235, 237, 238 Lepidocyclina, 99, 100 " limestone, 73 Lepidodendron, 40, 85, 261 " beds, 162 Lepralia, 157, 158 Leptaena, 162, 164 Leptoclinum, 257, 258 Leptodesma, 179 Leptodomus, 177 Leptograptus, 124 Leptolepis, 264, 265, 267 Lepton, 187 Lichas, 229 Lichenopora, 158 Lieberkuehnia, 95 Lima, 184, 185, 186 Limatula, 185 Limestones formed by organisms, 72 Limnaea, 69 Limopsis, 184, 185, 187 Limulus, 248 Lingula, 160, 162, 166, 261 Linthia, 147, 148 Liopyrga, 201 Liotia, 198, 200 Lithistid sponges, 109, 110 Lithological evidence, value of, 44 Lithophaps, 283 Lithothamnion, 75 Lituites, 207 Lituola, 97 Loganograptus, 126 Lophophyllum, 117 Lorica, 190 Lotorium, 198, 200, 202 Lovenia, 147 Lower Cambrian trilobites, 226 " Cretaceous bivalves, 183 " " brachiopods, 166 " " cephalopods, 209 " " crab, 246 " " dragon-fly, 250 " " fishes, 267 " " reptiles, 277 " Mesozoic fishes, 263 " Ordovician graptolites, New Zealand, 126 " Ordovician graptolites, Victoria, 124 Loxoconcha, 239 Loxonema, 193, 194, 195, 196 Lucina, 185, 187 Lung-fish, 265 Lunucammina, 98 Lunulicardium, 178 Lunulites, 158 Lyriopecten, 179

Maccoyella, 183, 184 Macrocephalites, 209 Macrocheilus, 196 Macrocypris, 236, 240 Macropora, 158 Macropus, 289, 295 Macrotaeniopteris, 88 Mactra, 177, 185, 188 Madrepore limestone, 73 Magasella, 166, 168 Magellania, 166, 167, 168 Magnolia, 91 Maiden-hair tree, 89 Mail-shells, 189 MAMMALIA, early types, 285 Mammals, fossil, 51 Manatees and dugongs, 298 Marginella, 198, 199 Marginulina, 98 Marsupial lion, 293 Marsupial, oldest known Australian, 294 Marsupials, 287 " Pleistocene and living, 295 Martiniopsis, 164 Mastodonsaurus, 274 Material for fossil collecting, 315 Megalania, 280 Megalosaurus, 277 Melania, 203 Melosira, 92 Membranipora, 157, 158 Meretrix, 177, 185, 187 Mesoblastus, 139 Mesostigmodera, 250 Mesozoic strata, 46 Metablastus, 139 Metasqualodon, 295, 296 METAZOA, 95 Micraster, 146 Microdiscus, 227 Mikrogromia, 95 Millepora, 119 Milleporids, 119 Miliolina, 96, 100, 101 Miocene bird, New Zealand, 280 " leaf-beds, 90 Miolania, 279 Mitra, 198, 199, 204 Moa-birds, 281-285, 299 Modiola, 183, 186 Modiolaria, 186 Modiolopsis, 177 MOLLUSCA, characters of, 38, 56, 174 MOLLUSCOIDEA, characters of, 38, 57, 154 Monactinellid sponges, 109, 110 Monogenerina, 97 Monograptus, 124, 128 Monostychia, 146 Monotis, 182 MONOTREMATA, 286 Monticulipora, 155 Monticuliporoids, 117 Montlivaltia, 118 Moor-hen, 283 Mopsea, 119 Morio, 198, 200 Mound-builders, 283 Mourlonia, 196 Mud-fish, 265, 267 Muds, 69 Mudstone, 70 MULTITUBERCULATA, 286 Murchisonia, 104, 195, 196 Murex, 198, 199, 200 Myodora, 185, 187 Myriolepis, 262, 263 Mytilarca, 177 Mytilus, 182, 183, 187, 188

Naming of animals, 34 Nassa, 191, 198, 204 Natica, 191, 197, 198, 200, 201 Native cat, 287, 295 " dog, 298 " honeysuckle, 91, 92 NAUTILOIDEA, 204 Nautilus, 204, 207, 209, 210 Navicula, 92 Nebalia, 244 Necrastur, 283 Neoceratodus, 267 Newer Pliocene seal, 299 Newtoniella, 198 New Zealand fossiliferous strata, 49 Niso, 194, 198 Nodosaria, 98, 100 Nonionina, 96 Normanites, 209 Notasaphus, 227 Notidanus, 268, 269, 270, 271 Notochelone, 53, 277 Notophyllia, 118 Nototherium, 293 Nubecularia, 97, 98 Nucleospira, 160 Nucula, 175, 177, 178, 183, 184, 185 Nuculites, 177, 178 Nullipore limestone, 75 Nummulites, 65, 99 Nummulitic limestone, 73 Nyroca, 283

OCTOPODA, 205 Octopus, 205 Odontaspis, 269, 270, 271 ODONTOCETI, 295 Odontopleura, 229, 231 Odostomia, 198, 200 Oenonites, 153 Olenellus, 226, 227 Oliva, 204 Ommatocarcinus, 247 Omphalotrochus, 194 Oolitic ironstone, 81 Ophileta, 192, 193 OPHIUROIDEA, 141 Orbiculoidea, 160 Orbitoides, 99 Ordovician bivalve, 177 " brachiopods, 159 " cephalopods, 205 " corals, 113 " crinoids, 135 " gasteropods, 193 " Phyllocarida, 244 " Radiolaria, 102 " sponges, 108 " trilobites, 227 Ornithorhynchus, 286, 287 Orthis, 159, 160, 161, 162 " limestone, 74 Orthoceras, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208 Orthonota, 177 Orthothetes, 162 OSTRACODA, features of carapace, 234 " habits of, 234 " structure of, 233 Ostrea, 182, 184, 187 Otaria, 299 Oxyrhina, 269, 270, 271 OXYSTOMATA, 247 Oxytelus, 250

Pachydomus, 181 Pachyornis, 282, 283 Pachypora, 73, 116 Palaeaster, 140, 141 Palaeeudyptes, 280, 281 Palaeohatteria, 276 Palaeolycus, 250 Palaeoneilo, 177, 178 Palaeoniscus, 261, 263, 274 Palaeopelargus, 283 Palaeozoic chitons, 189 " Cladophora, 122 " Cryptostomata, 156 " errant worms, 153 " strata, 47 " Trepostomata, 155 Palissya, 89, 164 Pallymnarchus, 279 Palorchestes, 290 Panda, 203 Panenka, 177 Paracyainus, 118 Paracyclas, 177, 179 Paradoxechinus, 145 Paradoxorhyncha, 239 Parasqualodon, 295, 296 Pareiasaurus, 276 Patella, 190, 191 Pecten, 175, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188 PELECYPODA, characters of, 174 " hinge structure of, 175 Pelican, 283 Pelicanus, 283 Pelosina, 97 ?Peltopleurus, 262 Pentacrinus, 137, 138 Pentagonaster, 141 Pentamerus, 160, 162 Penteune, 91 Peragale, 289 Perameles, 289, 295 Perisphinctes, 209 Permian and Triassic reptiles, 276 Perna, 187 Peronella, 148 Persoonia, 90 Petaurus, 295 Petraia, 113 Phacops, 229, 230, 231 Phalanger, 295 Phanerotrema, 194 Phascolomys, 289, 295 Phascolonus, 289 Phialocrinus, 137 Phillipsia, 232 Phoenicopsis, 88 Pholas, 177 Pholidophorus, 262, 263 Phos, 198 Phragmoceras, 207 Phryganea, 75 PHYLACTOLAEMATA, 155 PHYLLOCARIDA, structure of, 243 Phyllocladus, 90 Phyllograptus, 123, 126 PHYLLOPODA, 233 Phyllotheca, 274 Physa, 191 Physonemus, 261 Pigeon, 283 Pinna, 186 PINNIPEDIA, 299 Pisania, 202 ?Pisocrinus, 136 Placopsilina, 97 Placotrochus, 118 Placunanomia, 184, 187 Plagiarca, 184 Plagiaulax, 286 Planorbis, 191 Plants, fossil, 66 Plant series, characters of, 39 Platalea, 283 Platyceps, 273 Platyceras, 192, 194, 195, 196 Platycoila, 91 Platycrinus, 137 Platyschisma, 196 Platysomus, 263 Plaxiphora, 190 Plectroninia, 112 Pleioclinis, 91 Pleistocene birds, New Zealand, 283 " bivalves, 188 " carinate birds, 283 " diprotodonts, 289 " fish, 272 " Foraminifera, 101 " gasteropods, 202 " lobster, 248 " plants, 91 " seal, 299 Plerophyllum, 117 Plesiastraea, 119 Plesiolampas, 148 Plesiosaurus, 279 Pleuracanthus, 263 Pleurodictyum, 114 Pleuromya, 183 ?Pleurostomella, 98 Pleurotoma, 198, 199, 202 Pleurotomaria, 194, 196, 197, 200, 202 Plicatula, 186 Pliocene moa, New Zealand, 281 Pliosaurus, 278 Plotus, 283 Podocarpus, 90 Poecilodus, 262 ?Pollicipes, 243 POLYCHAETA, 152, 154 Polycotylus, 279 Polymastodon, 286 Polymorphina, 98, 100 POLYPLACOPHORA, 189 Polypora, 157 POLYPROTODONTIA, 287 Polystomella, 101 POLYZOA, characters of, 59, 155 " subdivisons of, 155 Polyzoal limestone, 74 Porcellia, 196 Porcupine fish, 270, 271 Porina, 158 Porphyrio, 283 Portheus, 268 Poteriocrinus, 137 Prehensile Rat-kangaroo, 295 Preservation of fossils, 319 Primitia, 236, 237 Pristisomus, 262 Procoptodon, 290 Productus, 162, 163, 164 Proechidna, 287 Proetus, 229, 232 Progura, 283 Prosopon, 246 Protaster, 142 Protocardium, 185 Protopharetra, 113 Protoretepora, 157 Protospongia, 107,108 PROTOZOA, characters of, 36, 65, 95 Psammechinus, 145 Pseudamaura, 197 Psilichthys, 264 PTERIDOPHYTA, characters of, 40 PTERIDOSPERMEAE, characters of, 40 Pterinea, 178, 179 Pteris (Pteridium), 91 PTEROPODA, 190, 192, 193, 194 Pterygotus, 248, 249 Ptilograptus, 122 Ptychoparia, 226, 227 Pugnellus, 184 Pulvinulina, 98 Purbeck marble, 74 Purisiphonia, 110 Purpura, 191

RADIOLARIA, characters of, 36, 66 " habitat of, 101 " structure of, 101 " subdivisions, 102 Rail, 283 Raised beaches as distinct from middens, 29 Ranella, 204 Range-in-time of fossils, 50 Raphistoma, 193, 195 Rat-kangaroo, 295 Receptaculites, 109 Regular echinoids, 144 Reinschia, 78 Reptiles, fossil, 53 " dentition of, 275 " structure of, 274 Reteocrinus, 135 Retepora, 158 Reticularia, 164 Retiolites, 124, 128 Rhacopteris, 86 Rhinopterocaris, 244, 246 Rhipidomella, 162 Rhizophyllum, 113 Rhodocrinus, 135 Rhombopora, 156 Rhynchonella, 158, 165, 166 RHYNCHOTA, 250 Rhynchotrema, 160 Ringicula, 202 Risella, 191 Rissoa, 198 Rissoina, 197 Rostellaria, 198 Rotalia, 96, 101 Rugose corals, 113

Saccammina, 96 Saccocaris, 244 Sagenodus, 263 Salterella, 192 Sandstones, 71 Sanidophyllum, 115 Sarcophilus, 287, 295 Sargus, 272 Scala, 191, 198, 199, 200, 202 Scalaetrochus, 194 Scaldicetus, 297 Scaphella, 202 Scaphites, 209 SCAPHOPODA, 188 Scenella, 193 Sceparnodon, 289 Schizaster, 148 Schizodus, 175 Schizophoria, 162 Schloenbachia, 209 Scutellina, 146 Sea-beds far from the present coast, 29 Sea-bream, 272 " -cucumbers, 148 " -firs, 119, 122 " -mats, 154, 155 " -pen, 119 " -urchins, 59, 143 " characters of, 144 Sedentary worms, 154 Seguenzia, 199 Selenaria, 158 Semele, 185 Semicassis, 198 Seminula, 164 Semionotus, 262, 263 SEPIOIDEA, 205 Serpula, 154 Serpulite limestone, 74 Sertularia, 119, 122 Shales, 69 Sharks, 267, 269, 270, 271 Shell-limestone, 74 Shumardia, 227 Sigsbeia, 143 Siliceous rocks, 71 Silicified wood, 24 Siliquaria, 198 Silurian bivalves, 177 " brachiopods, 160 " brittle-stars, 142 " cephalopods, 206 " cirripedes, 241 " conodonts, 153 " corals, 113 " crinoids, 135 " Foraminifera, 96 " gasteropods, 193 " graptolites, Victoria, 128 " Hexacoralla, 114 " Octocoralla, 115 " Ostracoda, 235 " palaeechinoids, 144 " Phyllocarida, 246 " plants, 82 " Radiolaria, 102 " sponges, 109 " starfishes, 140 " stromatoporoids, 121 " trilobites, 228 Siphonalia, 198 Siphonia, 110 Siphonotreta, 160 SIRENIA, 298 Sistrum, 202 Slate, 70 Smith, William, 26 Smittia, 158 Solarium, 198 Solenocurtus, 187 Soletellina, 188 Sphaerosiderite, 80 Sphenopteris, 85, 89 Sphenotrochus, 118, 119 Sphenotus, 177, 179 Sphyrna, 270 Spirifer, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164 Spiriferina, 165 " -beds, 208 Spirillina, 96 Spirorbis, 154 Spirula, 205 Spirulirostra, 205, 210 Spisula, 188 Spondylostrobus, 91 Spondylus, 175, 184, 185 SPONGES, characteristics of, 64, 107 Spongilla, 72 Spongodiscus, 103 Spongophyllum, 116 Spoonbill, 283 Spore coal, 76 Squalodon, 295 Stacheia, 97 Star-corals, 119 Starfishes, characters of, 61, 139 Staurolonche, 103 Stauroneis, 92 Steno, 25 Stenopora, 117 Stenotheca, 192 Stephanella, 109 Stephanograptus, 126 Stephanotrochus, 118 Sthenurus, 290 Sting-ray, 271 Stomatopora, 158 Storing fossils, 320 Stork, 283 Strata, superposition of, 41 " vertically arranged, 44 Stratigraphical series, general thickness, 44 Stratigraphy, 27 Strepsodus, 261 Streptelasma, 113 Stricklandinia, 160 Stromatopora, 120, 121 Stromatoporella, 121, 122 STROMATOPOROIDS, 63, 120 Strombus, 184, 204 Strophalosia, 163 Stropheodonta, 160, 161 Strophonella, 160 Struthiolaria, 202 Studeria, 148 Sturtzura, 143 Stutchburia, 180 STYLASTERIDS, 119 Subemarginula, 198 Submerged forests, 30 Sunetta, 187 Superposition of strata, 41 Synaphe, 238 SYNDACTYLA, 288 Synedra, 92 Syringopora, 114 Syringothyris, 164

Tabellaria, 92 Taeniopteris, 88, 89, 164, 250, 265 Taniwhasaurus, 279 Taphaetus, 283 Tasmanian devil, 287, 295 " wolf, 287, 295 Tasmanite, 77 Taxocrinus, 135 Tellina, 185, 187, 188 Temnechinus, 146 Tentaculites, 193, 194, 195 Terebra, 198, 199, 202, 204 Terebratella, 166, 168 Terebratula, 166 Terebratulina, 166, 167 Tertiary ironstone, 81 Tessarodoma, 158 TETRACORALLA, 113 Tetractinellid sponge, 110, 112 Tetragraptus, 124, 126 Textularia, 98, 100 Thalassina, 248 THALLOPHYTA, characters of, 39 Thalotia, 200 Thamnastraea, 118 Thinnfeldia, 88, 89, 182 Thurammina, 97 Thyestes, 258 Thylacinus, 287, 295 Thylacoleo, 293, 303 Time-range of fossils, 50 Tomodus, 262 Toothed whales, 295 Torbanite, 77 Torlessia, 154 Trachyderma, 153, 154 Trachypora, 117 Trematonotus, 194 Trematotrochus, 118, 119 TREPOSTOMATA, 155 Tretocalia, 112 Triassic bivalves, 181 " brachiopods, 164 " cephalopods, 208 " crinoids, 137 " fishes, 262 " Foraminifera, 98 " labyrinthodonts, 273 " Ostracoda, 238 " Phyllopoda, 233 " plants, 88 " reptiles, New Zealand, 276 Tribonyx, 283 Tribrachiocrinus, 137 Trichograptus, 124 Tricoelocrinus, 139 Trigonia, 175, 182, 183, 184, 187 Trigonograptus, 126 TRILOBITES, habits of, 222 " structure of, 223 Tritylodon, 276, 286 Trivia, 198, 199 Trochoceras, 205 Trochonema, 195 Trochus, 191, 194, 195 Trophon, 202 Truncatulina, 98, 100 Tryplasma, 113 Tuatera, 276 Tudicla, 201 TUNICATA, 257 Turbo, 197, 200 Turrilepas, 241, 243 Turritella, 191, 198, 200, 201, 202 Turritella -limestone, 74 Tylosaurus, 279 Tylospira, 198, 202 Typhis, 198

Uncinulus, 162 Unio, 181, 182 Unionella, 181 Upper Cambrian trilobites, 227 " Cretaceous bivalves, 184 " Cretaceous brachiopod, 166 " Cretaceous cephalopod, 166 " Triassic fishes, 262 " Ordovician graptolites, New South Wales, 127 " Ordovician graptolites, Victoria, 126 Urasterella, 140 Urosthenes, 262

Vaginella, 198, 199 Vaginulina, 98 Valvulina, 97, 98 Venus, 177, 185, 187, 188 VERMES, characters of, 37 Vertebraria, 264 VERTEBRATA, characters of, 38, 257 Verticordia, 186 Vetotuba, 194 Voluta, 198, 201, 202 Volutilithes, 198, 201, 202 Volvox, 78 Volvulella, 201

Warrnambool footprints, 301 Werrikooian bivalves, 187 " gasteropods, 202 Whales, 295 White coal, 77 Wilsonia, 160 Wombat, 289, 295 Worms, fossil, 59, 152 Worm-tracks, 154 Wrasse family, 271 Wynyardia, 294

Xenophanes, 24 Xenorhynchus, 283 Xestoleberis, 237 Xiphosphaera, 103

Yvania, 196

Zaphrentis, 117 Ziphius, 296

INDEX TO AUSTRALASIAN LOCALITIES.

Appended letters indicate the State or Country:--

N.S.W., New South Wales; N.T., Northern Territory; N.Z., New Zealand; Q., Queensland; S.A., South Australia; T., Tasmania; V., Victoria; W.A., Western Australia.

Adelaide, S.A., 102 Aire Coast, V., 138 Airly, N.S.W., 273 Alice Springs, S.A., 193 Altona Bay, V., 112 Arcola, Q., 279 Arcoona, S.A., 91 Ardrossan, S.A., 82, 107

Bacchus Marsh, V., 88, 90 Balcombe's Bay, V., 190, 239, 317 Bald Hill, V., 88 Barker Gorge, W.A., 196, 232, 259 Barraba, N.S.W., 93, 102 Batesford, V., 73, 100, 138, 141 Baton River, N.Z., 195, 207 Bay of Islands, N.Z., 93 Beaumaris, V., 119, 243, 248, 270, 271, 296, 297, 317 Bendigo, V., 108, 109, 124, 246 Berwick, V., 68 Bindi, V., 109, 121, 161, 195 Bingera, N.S.W., 102 Boggy Creek, V., 112 Bowen River, Q., 117, 137, 164 Bowning, N.S.W., 144, 153, 207, 231, 241 Bowral, N.S.W., 274 Brighton, N.Z., 146, 248, 280 Broadhurst's Creek, V., 231 Broken River, N.Z., 146, 167 Broken River, Q., 136 Broome, W.A., 183 Brunswick, V., 136 Buchan, V., 79, 109, 115, 136, 161, 195, 203, 207, 231, 237, 258 Bulla, V., 122 Bungonia, N.S.W., 300 Burdekin, Q., 115, 116 Burnt Creek, V., 259 Burragorang, N.S.W., 180

Camperdown, V., 74 Canobolas district, N.S.W., 114 Canowindra, N.S.W., 162 Canterbury, N.Z., 154 Cape Liptrap, V., 71 Cape Otway, V., 119, 296 Cape Palliser, N.Z., 203 Cape Paterson, V., 265, 276 Carapook, V., 264 Caroline Creek, T., 227 Casterton, V., 265 Castlemaine, V., 126, 246 Cavan, N.S.W., 109 Cessnock, N.S.W., 237 Chatham Ids., 138 Chillagoe, Q., 115 Chinchilla, Q., 279 Clarence Town, N.S.W., 139, 162 Cliftonwood, N.S.W., 237 Clunes, V., 279 Cockatoo Id., N.S.W., 274 Collie, W.A., 98 Collingwood, V., 206 Coole Barghurk Creek, V., 193 Cooma, N.S.W., 93, 102 Copeland, N.S.W., 85 Corio Bay, V., 270 Corner Creek, Q., 237 Croydon, Q., 89, 166 Curiosity Shop, N.Z., 138, 280 Curlewis, V., 112, 247 Curramulka, S.A., 108, 177, 192, 235 Currowang, N.S.W., 127

Dalton, N.S.W., 90, 91 Dargo High Plains, V., 91 Darling Downs, Q., 53, 110, 282, 283, 298 Darling River, N.S.W., 154, 157 Darriwill, V., 126 Delegate River, N.S.W., 114 Derrengullen Creek, N.S.W., 190 Diggers' Rest, V., 126 Dolodrook River, V., 193, 227 Dromana, V., 246 Dundas Co., V., 264

East Maitland, N.S.W., 154 Elizabeth River, S.A., 91

Fanning River, Q., 207 Farley, N.S.W., 180, 237 Fernbrook, N.S.W., 109 Fifield, N.S.W., 237 Flemington, V., 136, 142, 143, 206, 318 Flinders, V., 65, 112 Flinders River, Q., 183, 250, 267, 277, 278 Florentine Valley, T., 159, 227 Fraser's Creek, V., 231

Gascoyne River, W.A., 117, 136, 137, 232, 262 Geelong, V., 100, 119, 120, 243 Geilston, T., 203 Gellibrand River, V., 199 Geraldton, W.A., 98, 197, 238 Gippsland Lakes, V., 168, 243 Gisborne, V., 299 Glenelg River, V., 168 Glenwilliam, N.S.W., 139 Goodradigbee River, N.S.W., 109 Goonoo, N.S.W., 85 Gordon River, T., 115 Gosford, N.S.W., 53, 262, 263, 273 Grampians, V., 261 Grange Burn, Hamilton, V., 143, 270, 271, 296, 297 Greenough River, W.A., 165, 182, 209 Grey River, N.Z., 78 Grice's Creek, V., 317 Grose Vale, N.S.W., 238 Gulgong, N.S.W., 279, 286 Gunning, N.S.W., 91

Haddon, V., 68 Hallett's Cove, S.A., 119 Hall's Sound, Papua, 201 Hamilton, N.Z., 285 Hamilton, V., 190, 243, 270, 271, 295, 296, 297 Hamilton River, Q., 267 Hatton's Corner, N.S.W., 114, 231 Heathcote, V., 160, 177, 227 Hobart, T., 68, 203 Hokonui Hills, N.Z., 164, 165 Hughenden, Q., 267, 268

Iguana Creek, V., 85 Irwin River, W.A., 97, 98, 137, 207 Island of Timor, 163

Jenolan Caves, N.S.W., 102, 121, 300

Kakanui, N.Z., 280 Kamileroy, Q., 267 Keilor, V., 128 Kent's Group, T., 203 Kilmore, V., 144, 206, 231, 246 Kilmore Creek, V., 231 Kimberley, W.A., 136, 137, 192, 207, 262 King Island, T., 53, 104, 283 King's Creek, Q., 282 Kirrak, V., 265 Knocklofty, T., 264 Knowsley, V., 227 Koroit, V., 305 Kowhai River, N.Z., 189

Lake Callabonna, S.A., 51, 282 Lake Connewarre, V., 270 Lake Eyre, S.A., 166, 183, 189, 197 Lake Frome, S.A., 91 Lancefield, V., 93, 108, 122, 124, 246 Laurie's Creek, S.A., 193, 205, 228 Lawson, N.S.W., 127 Leichhardt River, Q., 267 Leigh's Creek, S.A., 193 Lennard River, W.A., 208 Lilydale, V., 73, 82, 96, 114, 121, 190, 229, 231, 236, 243, 318 Limeburners Point, V., 79 Limestone Creek, Glenelg River, V., 202 Limestone Creek, Yass, N.S.W.; 136, 231 Loddon Valley, V., 279 Lord Howe Id., 279 Loyola, V., 109, 121, 229, 231 Lyndhurst, N.S.W., 227

Maddingley, V., 90 Mallee, V., 71, 101, 119, 138, 141 Mandurama, N.S.W., 102, 127, 227 Manly, N.S.W., 88 Mansfield, V., 53, 122, 154, 231, 259 Marathon Station, Q., 277 Maria Id., T., 180 Maryborough, Q., 146, 184, 304 Maryvale Creek, Q., 279 McMahon's Creek, V., 207 Melbourne, V., 82, 136, 140, 153, 178, 246 Mersey River, T., 77, 97, 193 Milburn, N.Z., 296 Mitchell Downs, Q., 137 Mitta Mitta River, V., 114 Molong, N.S.W., 114 Moonee Ponds Creek, V., 229, 318 Moorabool River, V., 112, 120, 202 Mornington, V., 65, 70, 90, 112, 118, 258, 269 Mosquito Plains, S.A., 300 Mount Angas, Q., 166 " Buninyong, V., 303 " Gambier, S.A., 71, 91, 119, 120, 138, 147, 282, 296 " Lambie, N.S.W., 85 " Macedon Cave, 298 " Potts, N.Z., 276 " Victoria, N.S.W., 88 " Wellington, V., 126, 134, 159, 193 " Wyatt, Q., 109 Muddy Creek, Hamilton, V., 141, 147, 243, 269, 295 Mudgee, N.S.W., 109 Muree, Raymond Terrace, N.S.W., 238 Murray River Cliffs, S.A., 58, 210 Murrumbidgee River, N.S.W., 114, 189, 259

Napier Range, W.A., 232 Narrengullen Creek, N.S.W., 237 Nelson, N.Z., 78, 126, 164, 165, 182, 233, 248 Newcastle, N.S.W., 233 Ngapara, N.Z., 296 Nimbin, Richmond River, N.S.W., 272 Norseman district, W.A., 110 Nugget Point, Otago, N.Z., 274 Nungatta, N.S.W., 85 Nyrang Creek, N.S.W., 162

Oakey Creek, N.S.W., 178 Oamaru, N.Z., 110, 280 Orakei Bay, N.Z., 158 Otway Coast, V., 90

Pakaraka, N.Z., 93 Papua, 100, 146, 148, 184, 187, 188, 201, 203, 209, 210 Paroo River, Q., 282 Peak Downs, Q., 282 Penola, S.A., 300 Petermann Creek, S.A., 193 Phillip Co., N.S.W., 282 Pine Creek, Q., 93 Pitfield Plains, V., 90 Pitchery Creek, Q., 278 Pokolbin, N.S.W., 97, 180 Port Campbell, V., 247 Port Darwin, N.T., 103, 248 Port Stephen, N.S.W., 262 Preservation Inlet, N.Z., 126

Ravensfield, N.S.W., 180 Reid Gap, Q., 207 Richmond Downs, Q., 267 Richmond River, N.S.W., 93 Rock Flat Creek, N.S.W., 206 Rockhampton, Q., 110, 139, 144, 153, 164, 196, 261 Rough Range, W.A., 116, 122

Sale, V., 112 San Remo, V., 122 Sebastopol, V., 93 Seville, V., 229, 231 Shakespeare Cliff, N.Z., 146 Southland, N.Z., 285 South Yarra, V., 128, 136, 143, 206, 229, 249, 318 Spring Creek, Torquay, V., 141 St. Peter's, Sydney, N.S.W., 262 Stanwell, Q., 137 Stockyard Creek, N.S.W., 127 Stroud, N.S.W., 86 Studley Park, V., 128, 318 Sunbury, V., 126

Table Cape, T., 74, 190, 269, 270, 294, 296 Talbot, V., 93 Talbragar, 267 Tallong, N.S.W., 127 Tamworth, N.S.W., 85, 103, 115 Taranaki, N.Z., 203 Tempe Downs, S.A., 193, 205, 228 Thompson River, Q., 277 Thomson River, V., 229 Tinderbox Bay, T., 264 Tingaringi, N.S.W., 127 Toongabbie, V., 74, 135 Torquay, V., 74, 141, 148, 243, 269, 296 Tyer's River, V., 82, 144

Upper Finke Basin, S.A., 159 Upper Yarra, V., 206, 207, 231, 236

Vegetable Creek, N.S.W., 91

Waihao, N.Z., 296 Waikari River, N.Z., 141 Waikouaiti, N.Z., 296 Wairoa, N.Z., 274 Wairoa Gorge, N.Z., 137, 162 Waitaki Valley, N.Z., 296 Walhalla, V., 114, 121, 128 Wandong, V., 229, 231 Wanganui, N.Z., 299 Wannon River district, V., 53, 90 Waratah Bay, V., 114, 121, 229 Warburton, V., 207 Warrnambool, V., 282, 299, 301, 302 Waurn Ponds, V., 90, 119, 141, 243, 269, 296 Wellington Valley, N.S.W., 287, 298, 300 Well's Creek, N.Z., 165 West Melbourne Swamp, V., 51 Westport, N.Z., 78 Wharekuri, N.Z., 248 White Cliffs, N.S.W., 138, 179, 183, 184, 195, 279 Whittlesea, V., 206 Wilberforce, N.Z., 189 Wilcannia, N.S.W., 138 Wirrialpa, S.A., 159 Wollumbilla, Q., 98, 137, 154, 157, 166, 183, 189 Wombat Creek, V., 109, 126 Woori Yallock Creek, V., 231 Wormbete Creek, V., 74 Wynyard, T., 246

Yan Yean, V., 318 Yass, N.S.W., 65, 109, 114, 121, 153, 161, 179, 190, 207, 231, 237, 241 Yering, V., 142 Yorke Peninsula, S.A., 226 Yule Id., Papua, 146, 187, 201

Zeehan, T., 154

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CORRIGENDA.

Page 65, for head-line "Protozoa" read "How Fossils are Found."

Page 147, for head-line "Characteristic Fossils" read "Sea-urchins."

Page 273, for head-line "Reptiles" read "Amphibians."

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ERRATUM--Page 47.

In 1st column--for "Mesozoic or Secondary (continued)."

Read "Palaeozoic or Primary" and omit divisional line.

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Transcriber Note

Images were moved so paragraphs were not split. Minor typographical errors were corrected. Hyphenation was standardized to the most prevalent form utilized. As the æ ligature was only used five times and "ae" was used more than 50 times, the ligature was converted to "ae".