Part 16

To keep track of the rapidly changing positions and various phases of the moons of Jupiter as seen from any one of them, as well as the rapid apparent motion of the planet through the sky due to the revolutions of the satellite around the planet, would be a troublesome task for an astronomer stationed on one of these far distant worlds. It would be a common sight to see in the sky at one time the huge planet, the far-distant, shrunken sun, and one, two or three moons. Seen from the moons of Jupiter the constellations would appear as they do to us on earth, for such a slight change in position as five hundred million miles, more or less, is trivial when one is looking at the stars. Observations of the stars from the nearest moon of Jupiter would be attended with great difficulties at times, since reflected sunlight from a body nearly twenty degrees in diameter would be extremely troublesome, especially were the phases of the planets near that of the full moon. We know how the presence of our own moon in the heavens at the full dims the brightness of the stars so that only the brightest stars are seen. Even as viewed from the fourth or most distant of the major satellites the planet subtends an angle of nearly five degrees. Occultations of the stars are many and frequent as the huge planet globe glides swiftly through the heavens. Many a moonlight night appears almost as day owing to the presence of the enormous, brilliantly reflecting ball of light and at times two or three moons in addition. Only the brightest stars could possibly be seen under such circumstances. When, however, the small worlds pass into the shadow of the great mother planet and not only the light of the sun but also the reflected light of Jupiter disappears for many minutes, the stars shine forth in all their glory there as here. At such times some of the larger moons would usually be seen shining by the reflected light of the far distant sun. Saturn also would be visible as a magnificent star, but beautiful Venus and ruddy Mars would fail to appear. Tiny bodies, mere specks of light at this distance, they would be lost to view in the glare of the sun.

THE RINGS AND MOONS OF SATURN

Nearly everyone has felt at some time or other a strong desire to gaze at some of the beauties and wonders of the heavens through a telescope and the one object that all of us wish to see, if, perchance, this desire is to be gratified is Saturn, whose unusual ring system has, so far as we know, no counterpart in the sky.

All the planets in the solar system with the exception of the two innermost, Mercury and Venus, are attended by satellites, but Saturn, alone, has in addition to a family of nine moons, three distinct rings of great dimensions which are composed of swarms of minute particles revolving around the planet.

Why Saturn should be the only planet to possess such a system of rings has never been explained in an entirely satisfactory manner. There is an interesting law known as "Roche's Law," however, named from its investigator, that states that no satellite of a planet can exist intact with 2.44 times the radius of the planet. This limit is spoken of as "Roche's Limit" and applying it to the planet Saturn we find that the rings of Saturn fall within this limit. It does not necessarily follow from this that the minute particles of which the rings are composed are the shattered remains of one small satellite, but rather that they are the material from which a satellite might have been formed were it not so close to the planet. Within "Roche's Limit" the mutual attraction of the various particles for each other that would tend eventually to gather them into one body is overcome by tidal forces that arise from such close proximity to the huge planet. The stress and strain of such forces is so great that no grouping of particles can take place. This explains, possibly, why the rings continue to exist in their present condition. The total quantity of matter in the rings is known to be very small, for it does not disturb the motions of any of the nearer and smaller satellites, though tiny Mimas, six hundred miles in diameter, is only thirty-one thousand miles beyond the outer edge of the outer ring.

An interesting observation was made a few years ago of the passage of the rings of the planet between us and a star. Though the light of the star was diminished to one-fourth of its normal brightness when the rings passed before it, at no time was its light entirely eclipsed by any of the particles. It was computed that if the diameters of any of the individual particles had amounted to as much as three or four miles the star would have been temporarily eclipsed. An upper limit for the size of the moonlets was thus obtained. The average diameter of the particles is probably much less than three miles.

The thickness of the ring system is not over fifty or one hundred miles, but its total diameter is one hundred and seventy-two thousand miles. There are, in all, three concentric rings. The faint inner ring, known as the "crape" ring, is invisible in a telescope under four inches in aperture. The width of this inner ring is eleven thousand miles. Just beyond the crape ring is the chief, bright ring, eighteen thousand miles in width. It shades gradually in brightness from its juncture with the crape ring to its most luminous portion at its outer edge, which is separated from the third or outer ring by a gap two thousand two hundred miles in width, known as Cassini's Division. The third or outer ring is eleven thousand miles wide and is less bright than the central ring. The inner edge of the inner ring is but six thousand miles above the surface of the planet. On account of the curvature of the planet the ring system is invisible from the north and south poles of Saturn. As in the case of the satellites of a planet the inner particles of the rings revolve around the planet more rapidly than the outer particles. The innermost particles of the crape ring require but five hours for one journey around Saturn while the outermost particles of the outer ring require one hundred and thirty-seven hours, or nearly six days to complete one revolution.

In addition to the gap in the rings known as Cassini's Division several other fainter divisions exist. If a group of moonlets were to revolve around the planet in the positions marked by these gaps their periods of revolution would be commensurable with the periods of several of the satellites of Saturn. As a result the attraction exerted on such particles by these satellites would gradually disturb their motion in such a way as to draw them away from these positions. It is owing, therefore, to the attraction of the satellites of Saturn for the moonlets that these gaps in the rings exist.

As a result of the disturbances produced in the motion of the moonlets by the satellites of Saturn collisions are bound to occur occasionally among the various particles. When two particles collide the period of revolution of one or both of them is reduced and as a result collisions tend to bring the moonlets gradually closer and closer to the surface of the planet. The dusky inner ring, it is believed, may consist largely of particles whose periods have been continually shortened by collisions.

Saturn may, therefore, lose its ring system in the course of time through its gradually being drawn down upon the planet by collisions of the various particles until all of the material is finally swept up by the planet. Such a change would probably require millions of years, however, as collisions are probably, on the whole, infrequent. It is possible that the ring system of Saturn may have been much more extensive in the past than it is now and other members of our solar system may have had such appendages in the far distant past.

The appearance of the rings of Saturn as viewed from our planet changes periodically as a result of the revolution of the earth and Saturn around the sun, which places them in constantly changing positions with reference to each other. The rings lie in the plane of Saturn's equator, which is inclined twenty-seven degrees to its orbit and twenty-eight degrees to the Earth's orbit.

Since the position of the equator remains parallel to itself while the planet is journeying around the sun it happens that half the time the earth is elevated above the plane of the rings and the remainder of the time it lies below the plane of the rings. Twice in the period of Saturn's revolution around the sun, which occupies nearly thirty years, the earth lies directly in the plane of the rings and at this time the rings entirely disappear from view for a short time. Mid-way between the two dates of disappearance the rings are tilted at their widest angle with reference to the earth and they are then seen to the best advantage. As the date of their disappearance approaches they appear more and more like a line of light extending to either side of the planet's equator. Even in the most powerful telescope the rings entirely disappear from view for a few hours at the time the earth lies exactly in the same plane. It is at this time that the ball of the planet is best seen. Its flattening at the poles, which is nearly ten per cent. of its equatorial diameter then gives it a decidedly oval appearance. Ordinarily one of the hemispheres of Saturn is partly or entirely concealed by the rings so that the oblate form is not so noticeable. It was the change in the tilt and visibility of the rings that so perplexed Galileo when he attempted to make out the nature of these appendages of Saturn with his crude telescope of insufficient magnifying power. So great was his bewilderment when the rings finally disappeared that he cried out in despair that Saturn must have swallowed his children, according to the legend. He finally became so exasperated with the results of his observations that he gave up observing the planet. The true nature of these appendages of Saturn remained a mystery until Huygens solved the problem in 1655, some time after the death of Galileo.

In addition to the rings, Saturn has nine satellites named, in the order of their distance outward from the planet, Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Titan, Hyperion, Iapetus and Phoebe. The last-mentioned satellite was discovered by W. H. Pickering in 1899. It aroused great interest at the time because it was the first satellite to be discovered with "retrograde" motion in its orbit. Two satellites of Jupiter since discovered revolve in the same direction around their primary.

The satellites of Saturn are approximate to those of Jupiter in size and exactly equal them in number. The largest, Titan, is three thousand miles in diameter and can be easily seen with the smallest telescopes. With a four-inch telescope five of the satellites can be readily found, though they are not as interesting to observe as the satellites of Jupiter because they are far more distant from the earth. The time they require to make one journey around Saturn varies from nearly twenty-three hours for Mimas, the nearest, to approximately five hundred and twenty-four days for Phoebe, the most distant.

Saturn as well as Jupiter is marked by belts parallel to the Equator though they appear more indistinct than those of Jupiter on account of the greater distance of Saturn. Saturn also resembles Jupiter in its physical composition which is largely, if not entirely, gaseous, and in the extremely short period of rotation on its axis which is approximately ten hours. In more ways than one Saturn is a very unusual planet. In addition to possessing an enormous ring system it is the lightest of all the planets, its density being only sixty-three hundredths that of water, and it is the most oblate, its flattening at the poles amounting nearly to one-tenth of its diameter. Its equator is more highly inclined to its orbit than is the case with any other planet, not even excepting the earth and Mars. For this reason its seasonal changes are very great, in marked contrast to Jupiter whose equator lies very nearly in the plane of its orbit. Since Saturn is so far away from the sun that it receives only one ninetieth as much light and heat per unit area as the earth, its outer gaseous surface must be extremely cold unless considerable heat is conveyed to the surface from within its hot interior.

The late Prof. Lowell concluded from certain observations made at Flagstaff, Ariz., that Saturn is composed of layers of different densities and that the inner layers are more flattened at the poles and rotate faster than the outer layers. Marked variations in the color and brightness of the ball of the planet have been noted from time to time. In 1916 observers of Saturn described the planet as pinkish-brown and conspicuously darker than the brighter portions of the rings.

It is believed that these very noticeable changes in the color and brightness of Saturn are due to slight, irregular changes in the intensity of the radiations of the sun which set up certain secondary effects in the atmosphere of the planets. Similar changes in color and brightness have been observed also in the case of Jupiter.

XXI

IS THE MOON A DEAD WORLD?

It has been a generally accepted belief among astronomers for years that the moon is a dead world devoid of air and water and so, necessarily, lifeless. It is certain that the moon has no extensive atmosphere such as envelops our own planet. There is abundant proof of this fact. The edge of the lunar disk is clear-cut. Whenever, as happens frequently, the moon passes between us and a star the disappearance of the star is instantaneous. There is no gradual dimming or refraction of the star's light by atmospheric vapors. Moreover, lunar shadows are harsh and black. There is no evidence of diffusion of light on the moon by atmospheric gases.

The absence of water or water vapor on the visible surface of the moon, at least in any appreciable quantity, is plainly evident to anyone who observes the moon through the telescope. Even with small telescopes, objects five miles or so in diameter can be readily detected and clouds drifting over the surface could not possibly escape our observation if they existed.

Bodies of water, great or small, would be plainly visible and would besides give rise to water vapor and clouds, which we would not fail to detect.

Since the surface of the moon is unscreened by air and water vapor to absorb the incoming rays from the sun, and the outgoing radiations from the surface, the extremes of temperature between day and night are very great, and are augmented by the fact that the lunar day equals the lunar month in length, so that fourteen days of untempered heat are followed by fourteen days of frigid darkness. Observations of the rate of radiation from the moon's surface during total eclipses of the moon indicate that the moon's radiation is very rapid, and that its temperature during the height of the lunar day probably approaches 200° F., while at the lunar midnight it may have fallen to 100° below zero F., or even lower.

With air and water both lacking and such extremes of temperature existing why should we seriously consider the question of life on the moon?

This is the point of view of the majority of astronomers and it seems well taken. Yet many astronomers who have made a special study of the lunar surface for years under all conditions of illumination and phase, and have most carefully observed and mapped and photographed its characteristic markings, are agreed that there are evidences that changes are taking place on the moon, and recently Prof. W. H. Pickering has expressed the belief, substantiated by drawings, that there is a progressive change of color or darkening within certain lunar craters with the advance of the lunar day, indicating, in his opinion, a rapid vegetational growth that springs up in the height of the lunar day and dies out as the lunar night approaches.

Some years ago certain selenographers suggested that there might exist in the numberless crater-pits and craters, in the deep-lying maria or "seas," and in the clefts and rills and cracks that form intricate systems all over the lunar surface, certain exhalations from the surface and heavy vapors including possibly carbon dioxide and water vapor to temper the extremes of the long lunar days and night and furnish the necessary medium for the support of certain forms of animal and vegetable life.

Many astronomers, including a number who are not in sympathy with the above view, believe that snow and ice exist on the moon, even though water in the form of liquid and vapor is not observable. All the extremely brilliant portions of the surface, according to some astronomers, are covered with snow and ice. Certainly, some portions of the moon's surface reflect sunlight as brilliantly as if they were covered with freshly fallen snow, while other portions appear to be black by contrast. There also appears to be evidence that certain small markings, described as crater-cones and resembling our terrestrial volcanoes more than any other lunar feature, are at times temporarily obscured from view by a veil of vapors. Many observers believe that these crater-cones are active volcanic vents, and that there is considerable volcanic activity still taking place upon the moon.

These small crater-cones resemble, we are told, parasitic cones found on the sides of terrestrial volcanoes, and they are frequently seen on the floors of craters closely associated with light streaks. These crater-cones appear under a high sun as minute white spots and can be studied to advantage only with powerful instruments. The Italian astronomer, Maggini, observing the floor of the lunar crater, Plato, in 1916 noted that one of the small crater-cones that exist there in great numbers, was temporarily obscured from view by a cloud of reddish vapors, and Prof. W. H. Pickering, at Arequipa, Peru, observing the same region some years ago, believed that he saw evidence of change in some of these small markings. The crater, Plato, has probably been more carefully studied than any other portion of the lunar surface. It is sixty miles in diameter and may be seen even without a telescope as a dark "eye" not far from the northern edge of the moon. Its floor is one of the darkest objects in the moon--a dark steel-grey in color--and there is no doubt that for some unknown reason its dark hue deepens from the time the sun has an altitude of twenty degrees until after full moon. It has a brilliant white wall rising from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above its floor, crowned with several lofty peaks and intersected by a number of valleys and passes. The spots and faint light markings on the floor have been the object of much study with small or moderate sized instruments, and at least six of them are known to be crater-cones. Since they can only be studied to advantage with powerful instruments and as such instruments are rarely used for a systematic study of lunar markings, it is difficult to settle the controversy as to whether they have changed in appearance or have been at any time obscured by vapors. Most lunar observing is done--necessarily--with smaller instruments because the majority of astronomers appear to have accepted the view that the moon is a dead world, and those who are engaged in astronomical work with our greatest telescopes seem to feel that other fields of research will prove more fruitful. Possibly it is for this reason that we know so little about our nearest neighbor in space! There are at least as many unsolved problems confronting us on the moon as there are among the distant stars.