Ancient Calendars and Constellations

PART II

PLATES XV., XVI., XVII., AND XVIII. 215

PLATES XIX., XX. 226

PLATE XXI. 230

PLATE XXII. 239

PLATE XXIII. 245

PLATE XXIV. 248

INDEX 257

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATE I. To face page 13

PLATE II. „ 36

PLATE III. „ 40

PLATE IV. „ 64

PLATE V. „ 70

PLATE VI. „ 74

PLATE VII. „ 79

PLATE VIII. „ 80

PLATE IX. „ 118

PLATE X. „ 121

PLATE XI. „ 124

PLATE XII. „ 142

PLATE XIII. „ 174

PLATE XIV. „ 198

THE DIDÛ DRESSED Page 219

PORTION OF CEILING AT BYBÂN EL MOLOUK To face page 233

BULL APIS Page 233

OUTLINES OF TWO CARVED SLATES DRAWN FROM PLATES I. AND III. IN The Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archæology FOR MAY 1900 „ 237

THE CONSTELLATION PEGASUS „ 250

PLATE XV. At End

PLATE XVI. „

PLATE XVII. „

PLATE XVIII. „

PLATE XIX. „

PLATE XX. „

PLATE XXI. „

PLATE XXII. „

PLATE XXIII. „

PLATE XXIV. „

ANCIENT CALENDARS AND CONSTELLATIONS

PART I. I

THE ACCADIAN CALENDAR

Epping and Strassmaier, in their book Astronomisches aus Babylon, have lately translated three small documents, originally inscribed on clay tablets in the second century B.C. From these tablets, we learn that the Babylonians of the above date possessed a very advanced knowledge of the science of astronomy. Into the question of the extent of that knowledge we need not here enter further than to say that it enabled the Babylonian astronomers to draw up almanacs for the ensuing year; almanacs in which the eclipses of the sun and moon, and the times of the new and full moon, were accurately noted, as also the positions of the planets throughout the year. These positions were indicated by the nearness of the planet in question to some star in the vicinity of the ecliptic, and the ecliptic was portioned off into twelve groups, coinciding very closely in position and extent with the twelve divisions of the Zodiac as we now know them.

As to the calendar or mode of reckoning the year, we find that the order and names of the twelve months were as follows: Nisannu (or Nisan), Airu, Simannu, Dûzu, Abu, Ulûlu, Tischritu, Arah-samna, Kislimu, Tebitu, Šabâtu, Adaru.

Of these months Ulûlu and Adaru could be doubled as Ulûlu Sami (the second Elul), and Adaru Arki (the last Adar). The Babylonian years were soli-lunar: that is to say, the year of twelve lunar months, containing three hundred and fifty-four days, was bound to the solar year of three hundred and sixty-five days by intercalating, as occasion required, a thirteenth month.

Out of every eleven years there were seven with twelve months, and four with thirteen months. The first day of the year being, like some of our church festivals, dependent on the time of the new moon, was “moveable” (schwankende). The year, according to the tablets before Epping and Strassmaier, “began with Nisan, hence in the spring.”

“Was den Anfang des Jahres betrifft, so haben wir schon gezeigt, das die seleucidische Aera, wie sie in unseren drei Tafeln vorliegt, ihre Jahre mit dem Nisan, also im Frühjahr begann.” (Epping and Strassmaier, Astronomisches aus Babylon, p. 181).

This is a sketch of the Babylonian calendar in the second century B.C., as drawn from the work of the two learned Germans above-named.

Now we find in the British Museum a great number of trade documents which, according to the Catalogue, “cover a period of over two thousand years.” There are “tablets of the time of Rim-sin, Ḫammurabi, and Samsu-iluna; tablets of the time of the Assyrian supremacy, of the time of the native kings, and of the time of the Persian supremacy; tablets of the times of the Seleucidæ, and the Arsacidæ.”

See Guide to the Nimroud Central Saloon, B.M., 1886. The dates of the rulers mentioned are as follows:--

Rim-sin, about 2,300 B.C.

Ḫammurabi, about 2,200 B.C.

Samsu-iluna, about 2,100 B.C.

Assyrian supremacy from about 1275 to 609 B.C.

The latest tablet in the collection is dated, according to the Catalogue, 93 B.C.

These documents are all dated in such and such a month of such and such a year of some king’s reign; the months are the same (at first under their earlier Accadian names) as those we find in the almanacs translated by Epping and Strassmaier, and we meet in them, and in other historical inscriptions, with the intercalary months, the second Elul, and the second Adar. It would seem, then, that it was the same calendar, worked in the same way, that held its place through these two thousand years.

ASSYRIAN. ACCADIAN MONTH NAMES, AND TRANSLATIONS.

1. Ni’sannu, { Sara (or Bar) zig-gar (“the { sacrifice of righteousness”). 2. Airu, Khar-sidi (“the propitious bull”). 3. ’Sivanu, or Tsivan,{ Mun-ga (“of bricks”), and Kas (“the { twins”). 4. Duzu, Su kul-na (“seizer of seed”). 5. Abu, Ab ab-gar (“fire that makes fire”). 6. Ulûlu, Ki Gingir-na (“the errand of Istar”). 7. Tasritu, Tul-cu (“the holy altar”). 8. Arahk-samna (“the } 8th month”), } Apin-am-a (“the bull-like founder?”). 9. Cisilivu, or } Gan ganna (“the very cloudy”). Cuzallu, } 10. Dharbitu, Abba uddu (“the father of light”). 11. Šabahu, As a-an (“abundance of rain”). 12. Addaru, Se-ki-sil (“sowing of seed”). 13. Arakh-makru (“the } incidental month”), } Se-dir (“dark [month] of sowing”).

--Records of the Past, vol. i. p. 166.

As evidence of the antiquity of a fixed calendrical method of counting the year, and of a method closely resembling, if not identical with, that used in the latest periods of Babylonian history, the importance and trustworthiness of these documents can scarcely be over-rated. They were inscribed on soft clay (which was afterwards baked either by sun or fire), many of them four thousand years ago. No correction or erasure can have been made in them since that date. A translation of one of these tablets as given at p. 75 in the Guide to the Nimroud Central Saloon, is here given as an example of the style of many others.

“No. 3. Tablet and outer case inscribed with a deed of partnership or brotherhood between Sini-Innanna and Iriba^{m}-Sin.

“Tablet. Ṣini-Innanna and Iriba^{m}-Sin made brotherhood; they took a judge for the ratification, and went down to the temple of the sun-god, and he answered the people thus in the temple of the sun-god: ‘They must give Arda-luštâmar-Šamaš and Antu-lišlimam, the property of Iraba^{m}-šin, and Ârdu-ibšînan and Antu-am-anna-lamazi, the property of Ṣini-Innanna.’ He proclaimed in the temple of the sun-god and the moon-god: ‘Brother shall be kind to brother; brother shall not be evil towards, shall not injure, brother; and brother shall not harbour any angry thought as to anything about which a brother has disputed.’

“They have invoked the name of Innannaki, Utu, Marduk, Lugal-ki-ušuna, and the name of Ḫammurabi [Kîmta-rapaštu] the king.”

Here follow the names of eight witnesses. The translation of the inscription on the outer case is much to the same purpose, and need not here be quoted; the names of nine witnesses are appended to it. The Guide continues, after some other explanations, as follows:

“The whole of the first paragraph (except a few ideographs) is in Semitic Babylonian. The invocation is in Akkadian. The list of ‘witnesses,’ again, is in Semitic Babylonian, and the date in Akkadian.... The tablet is dated in the same way as the other documents of this class: ‘Month Adar of the year when Ḫammurabi the king made (images of) Innanna and Nanâ.’”

But, further, there are astrological works copied for the library of Assurbanipal from ancient Babylonian originals. The compilation of many of these originals is placed by scholars in the reign of Sargon of Accad, at the remote date of 3,800 B.C.

Sargon I. of Accad was of Semitic race. He was established as ruler in the city of Accad, and there reigned over a great non-Semitic race, in ancient cuneiform inscriptions styled the Accadai (Accadians). This word, as scholars tell us, carried the meaning of “highlanders,” or “mountaineers.” From this fact it is inferred they were not indigenous to the low plain surrounding the city of Accad, to which they gave their name. Their language contains few words for the productions of the almost tropical climate of Babylonia, but it shows familiarity with those of higher latitudes. At the time when Sargon, either by peaceful or warlike arts, was established as ruler over the Accadians, they were already a very highly civilized people. They possessed a literature of their own, which embraced a wide variety of subjects. The learning of the Accadians was highly esteemed, and translations into the Semitic language were made of important religious and scientific Accadian works. These works, down to the latest days of Babylonian power, were preserved and venerated, and many copies of them were made and preserved in public libraries in Babylonia and Assyria.

The Accadian after Sargon’s date gradually dropped out of general use, and became a “learned” language, holding amongst Babylonians and Assyrians much the same position as Latin and Greek amongst Europeans.

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