CHAPTER XIV.. An Epitome of the History of Dentistry.

AN EPITOME OF THE HISTORY OF DENTISTRY.

Rude Dentistry of Prehistoric Times. Early Instruments for Extraction Made of Lead. Dentistry on the Same Low Plane as Medicine during the First Half of the Christian Era. Dentistry Taught at the School of Salernum. Progress of the Art on the Continent. Prosthesis and Substitutes for Human Teeth. Introduction of Porcelain for Artificial Teeth; of Metal and of Vulcanized Rubber for Plates; of Plaster for Impressions. From being a Trade, Dentistry is now a Profession, in which Americans lead the World. Statistics.

The{330} following is a synopsis of an address delivered at the opening of the session of the Dental Department of the University of Buffalo, in October, 1895. It is appended here because it is certainly apropos of the topics herein considered, the colloquial form being retained.

Called upon at short notice to welcome you here, and to offer remarks of general professional interest, it occurs to me to be retrospective for awhile and to consider the steps by which that which was once an exceedingly crude art has been developed until now it is an exact science. In other words, I would invite your attention, for a time, to the history of dentistry. At a time even before our combined art and science had a definite history we find that gold was used among the Egyptians for the purpose both of filling teeth and of supporting and directing them. In the bodies of many Egyptian mummies, especially of the higher class, there have been found teeth filled with gold or with wood which was covered with gold. It is known, also, that the Hindoos and Egyptians inserted artificial teeth and that some of these were made of wood, often covered with gold, and held in place by gold or silver bands and wires. Herodotus, who traveled so extensively in Egypt and wrote most entertainingly of his travels, has noted the division of medicine among the Egyptians into special branches and the existence of physicians, each of whom{331} applied himself to one disease and not to more. "Some," said he, "are for the eyes, others for the head, others for the teeth, and others for internal disorders."

It is known, also, that about 300 B.C. Erasistratus deposited in the temple of the Delphian Apollo an odontogogue, or tooth-forceps, made of lead, intimating thereby that only those teeth should be drawn which were loose enough to be extracted with such an instrument.

Celsus, who was a contemporary of Christ and of Cæsar, was the first to recommend the use of a file within the mouth for the purpose of removing irritating edges and points of teeth. He also recommended bursting hollow teeth by putting into them pepper-corns, which should absorb moisture, swell, and thus break the teeth in pieces. He also recommended to take particular pains to try to shake or manipulate teeth loose before extracting them.

Galen, about 150 A.D., taught that teeth were true bones and that the canine teeth should be called "eye" teeth, because they were supplied by a branch of the optic nerve. Aëtius, 300 A.D., apparently discovered the foramina at the roots of the teeth through which the nerves enter.

In Rome false teeth and sets of teeth constructed of ivory and fastened with gold wire existed as early as the Laws of the XII Tables, and before the days of Roman civilization it is known that the Etruscans were skilled in manipulation of gold within the mouth, while your dean has described and has, I believe, in his possession beautiful examples of Etruscan work of this kind.

Among the Arabs, after the Arabian domination of the then civilized world, attention was paid to the teeth, although this was considered a very inferior part of the physician's work. Among these Arabians much later, and in spite of their study of Greek writers and their translations from the Greek, there may still be met such passages as{332} this from Garriopontus, 1045 A.D.: "On the island of Delphi a painful molar tooth, which was extracted by an inexperienced physician, occasioned the death of a philosopher, for the marrow of the tooth, which originates from the brain, ran down into the lungs and killed that philosopher." For all that I know, this is the first record of a death after extraction of a tooth. Albucassis, 1100 A.D., gave directions for replacing lost teeth by natural or ivory substitutes. For centuries extraction of teeth had been and was considered a critical and dangerous operation, although itinerant quacks drew them without hesitation.

The Roman poets and satirists made many allusions, in their day, to the teeth and to operations performed upon them.

During the Middle Ages the most celebrated medical school that the world ever saw was founded at Saleraum, and was for several centuries the headquarters to which resorted men who desired to study medicine and patients from all parts of the world who desired to be cured of various diseases. It was a favorite stopping-place for crusaders on their way to and from the Orient, and history relates many interesting episodes pertaining to such visits. Under the influence of this school dentistry was more or less cultivated by those who practiced surgery. Bruno, of Langoburo (about 1250), mentions various operations upon the teeth and the antrum, although that was nearly four hundred years before Highmore carefully described this cavity. Johannes Arculanus (Giovanni d'Arcoli), in the fifteenth century, filled teeth with gold. I must digress for a moment to speak of another suggestion of Arculanus's. You know that quite recently the use of the magnet has once more come into vogue among oculists for the removal of foreign particles of iron or steel from the anterior chamber or the globe of the eye. It was Arculanus who, some five hundred years ago, suggested extraction of iron splinters from the eye by means of the attraction of amber electrified by friction. (For School of Salernum{333} see page 72.)

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the French surgeons, especially Dionis and Verduc, made many practical contributions to dentistry. In 1728 Fauchard wrote in Paris the first complete work on dentistry,--Le Chirurgien Dentiste, ou Traité des Dents. Auzebi, of Lyons, wrote another. Le Cluse first mentioned the English turnkey for extraction. Jourdain introduced a number of new and appropriate instruments and new forms of artificial teeth. Bourdet, dentist to the king, made artificial palates. Porcelain teeth were first introduced in France in 1774.

Among the Germans cosmetic dentistry, though still the favorite field of charlatans, was greatly cultivated. Serré wrote a treatise on Toothache in the Fair Sex During Pregnancy, but the first public dental clinic in Germany was not established until 1855, by Professor Albrecht, and in Vienna. It has been in Vienna, among the Germans, that dentistry has been in time past most honored, and was taught when it was scarcely recognized in the other German universities. Private dental institutions were also first established in Vienna.

Of all the tooth-extracting instruments, the dental forceps in crude form is the earliest, the first on record, perhaps, being that deposited by Erasistratus in the Delphian temple, as already mentioned. For hundreds of years these instruments scarcely changed in shape. It was Garengeot who invented the key, early during the last century. Before that, and for awhile, dentists who had abandoned the forceps used an instrument known as the pelican,--said to much resemble the skid used by lumbermen.

Before artificial (porcelain) teeth came into use the following substitutes were employed, their estimated value being in accordance with the order in which I name them:

Human{334} teeth, animal teeth, hippopotamus tusk and teeth, elephant-ivory, and bone.

Human Teeth.--Transplantation of teeth was at one time very common. After being inserted, they were held in place by pivots and ligatures, springs, and upon bases. The pivot method also included the use of screws. Ligatures for fastening teeth were made of silk-worm gut,--which, now so common in surgery, was used for this purpose, perhaps, two hundred years ago,--of gold wire, etc. The method by ligatures is the earliest of all. Human teeth have always been more or less expensive if fresh, few people being willing to part with sound teeth except for a money consideration. In 1784 a Philadelphia dentist offered, in an advertisement, two guineas each for sound front teeth.

Animal Teeth.--These were largely used, being held in place the same way as above, the principal objection being that it was difficult, often impossible, to match human with animal teeth. It was found, also, that the latter decayed very much more easily.

Hippopotamus-ivory.--This was at one time very extensively used. It was carved into the shape of the missing teeth, and was held upon a base; or it was carved into shape as a base upon which to rest human teeth. Most often it was used as a base for pivoting. Not infrequently a block was carved out which represented gum, teeth, and all, and partial dentures of this complex type were often so deftly fashioned as to be very realistic, the part representing the gum being colored. Unfortunately no dye nor color in the mouth could be made permanent.

Elephant-ivory.--This was used for the cheaper grades of work, being less durable.

Bone.--Bone was still more objectionable, and was used for only the cheapest work.

Artificial porcelain teeth were first introduced in France in 1774 and in America in 1817. Those which were first made{335} were so large, awkward, rough, and ill-fashioned, without attempt to represent the gum, as to bear no comparison to the artistic products of to-day. They were intended for the most part for attachment to ivory bases. The artificial dentures made for George Washington were of this general character, and, although they called forth his encomiums in a letter to his dentist expressing his gratitude, they would pass for very shabby productions today. One of the greatest advances in dentistry was the introduction of gold bases as a substitute for the baseplates previously made of ivory or bone. This is distinctly an American invention, and is to be credited to Gardette, of Philadelphia, who produced the first bases of this kind in 1787. Since then other metals have been used only because cheaper, none having the valuable properties of gold.

Gutta-percha was introduced for this and various dental purposes in England, in 1851, by Trueman. In 1851, too, came Goodyear's process of vulcanizing, which the dental profession were at first slow to avail themselves of, but which led, as its value was recognized later, to expensive and almost endless litigation.

Another most valuable American invention was that of taking impressions by the use of plaster. This was introduced about 1844-'45. This method permitted the making of socket-plates, which, of itself, was a long step in advance.

So much for a very brief epitome of some of the most interesting facts in the history of dentistry. Did time permit, the matter would warrant treatment at much greater length. But what now is to be said of the condition of dentistry to-day? First of all, that it is no longer relegated to charlatans and itinerants, but is studied, practiced, and honored by men of the ablest minds and of the highest type. There is to-day scarcely any branch of applied science which calls for greater qualifications or for greater combination{336} of mental endowment and manual dexterity than does dentistry. We, in New York, find ourselves now in position where the State has assumed not only to regulate the practice of dentistry, but even to pass upon the qualifications of those who propose to study it. In the assumption of this task by the State there is paid, perhaps, the greatest possible compliment to its dignity and to its importance.

The great field of medicine is now altogether too vast, and the various branches which pertain to it are too complex, to permit a mastery of all its details by any one mind. The man does not live who to-day can be considered facile princeps in more than a few departments of medicine. Life is too short to permit of it, and the study is altogether too extensive. There is also a growing public demand for specialization of work, and there is probably more excuse for the perpetuation of dentistry as a specialty than for almost any other branch. Nevertheless, it is necessary constantly to repress a tendency toward a failure to comprehend the general principles underlying all medical specialties, and it has been hard, at least until recently, to impress upon the men of the dental profession that they were really only practicing a branch of medicine, and that, in disregarding a general and comprehensive knowledge of the fundamental branches, they were but poorly preparing themselves for the practice of a dignified specialty. Certainly dentistry makes as many demands for mechanical training, digital dexterity, familiarity with the properties of materials, etc., as does. surgery, and in some respects even more. Of course, to a certain extent in these respects it is like a mechanical trade. The great trouble with the dental profession, until very recent times, is that they have regarded their work too much as a trade and not enough as a profession. By taking the latter view of it the work is ennobled and their interest for it cultivated. By taking the trade view of it they have lost those finer features which{337} lift mechanical work out of the mere level of a trade. Moreover, men in time past have been guilty of altogether too much trades-union tactics, which are vehemently opposed to professional ethics, and this has been another feature to degrade rather than elevate dentistry.

This has been indeed a great misfortune, for men have been misled by the need for cultivation of their hands, or their manual powers, and have been persuaded away from a finer study of fundamental principles upon which the whole practice of dentistry should be based. And so it has happened that men have been so ambitious to become perfect operators that they have neglected anatomy, physiology, chemistry, and pathology, have even neglected odontology, sacrificing everything else to their work as mere artificers.

If one scrutinizes the subject properly, there is no reason why there should not grow up a class of men fitted to attend to any lesion of the mouth or of the parts adjoining. In other words, there is no reason why there is not more excuse for true oral surgeons than there is for any other class of specialists, save possibly those who treat the eye. Aural surgery, nasal surgery, pelvic surgery, rectal surgery, etc., are simply voluntary limitations and applications of general surgery to special parts; but he who attends to the teeth has to do so much work of a character which the surgeon is not called upon to perform in any other area, that I have always claimed the oral surgeon deserved a place, as he had a field, by himself. Nevertheless, the knowledge which shall fit a man for such work is not to be obtained in the ordinary dental course, nor in three years of study, even under the best of auspices. The man who would be an ideal oral surgeon must be not only generally familiar with anatomy and physiology, but must thoroughly know the embryology of the face and teeth, the physiology not alone of the organs of the mouth, but of all the secreting glands and the chemistry of all their secretions;{338} not only the anatomy of the cranium, but general anatomy as well, and even comparative anatomy. He must be well informed in the explanations of all the congenital defects met about the face and mouth; he must be familiar not only with the ordinary principles of pathology and bacteriology, but he will find in the fluids about the mouth such a fertile opportunity for bacteriological study that, be he ever so expert or erudite, he has still much left to investigate in this direction. There is no disease-germ with which he can afford to be unfamiliar, and, as any form of tumor may be found in or about the mouth, he should be familiar with the entire subject of tumors and their surgical treatment.

Then, again, he must be familiar not only with the physical properties of metals and the various materials used in plastic dentistry, nor expert alone in the operations about the teeth, but, inasmuch as he has to cope with various wounds, injuries, and operations about the soft parts, he must be thoroughly familiar with the principles of wound-healing; with the causes of sepsis and the agents which produce it, and the means of avoiding it; in other words, he must have a general training in operative surgery, and, according to my ideal, which may be high, he should be a man able to do almost any operation in surgery before he limits himself to surgery of the mouth. Unless he have this ability, he will not do such operation as well as a general surgeon can, because the underlying principles are the same, and the latter will have the greater command over them.

When, then, this perhaps ideal man has become thoroughly familiar with the principles of surgical anatomy, operative surgery, surgical pathology, and bacteriology, in addition to the things already mentioned, then, and not until then, may he and should he assume to operate for harelip, cleft palate, cancer of the tongue, and various other lesions in the parts about the mouth.

I{339} wish I could say and demonstrate more to impress upon you the important bearing of modern surgical pathology to dentistry. Perhaps I can give you no better illustrations than you can see in the studies and writings of Prof. W. D. Miller, of Berlin, of whom I am proud to say that he is an American, and that he is the only American occupying a professorship in a German university. In his studies on the causes of dental caries and upon the bacteria of the mouth he has identified and named nearly a hundred species of the bacteria, many of which he has shown to be the active causes of dental decay. He has done, then, for dental pathology in this direction what other eminent observers have done for the processes of suppuration and ulceration in other textures and tissues, and has helped to show that they are all evidences of pernicious germ activity. By his researches, also, upon inflammation in elephant-tusks, and the results of injury, mainly by bullet wounds, he has shown us that the phenomena attending these changes in dental tissues are practically identical with those in bone. His researches have done very much to explain the pathology of that common disease, pyorrhoea alveolaris, which is known to be but one expression of local infection, while the possibility of migration of infectious organisms and of metastatic lesions in other parts of the body, having their origin in infectious disease in or near the teeth, has been brilliantly demonstrated by his interpretation of well-known clinical facts.

That American dentists are most highly regarded abroad is more than a matter of every-day knowledge. It has got to be so now that a foreigner will purchase instruments of American make, and then advertise himself as an American dentist for the purpose of getting business,--a purpose in which, as a rule, he is quite successful. But let me stop here to do honor to another American dentist who is more highly honored abroad than one ever can be at home, and of whom it might be said, perhaps, that{340} he has had more friends among the royalty and nobility of Europe than any other man of his time. This is Dr. Evans, who has lived for years in Paris, who was the personal friend of Napoleon III and the trusted guide and companion of the Empress Eugenie when she fled from Paris. While it may be said of him that the qualities that made him so universally popular were personal qualities, rather than professional knowledge, it must be said in reply that it was his eminent professional attainment which first brought him such influential friends.

But time presses, and I want, before closing, to say a little about dentistry in America. It was about 1835 that Dr. Harris, then residing in Baltimore, though born near Syracuse, conceived the modern idea of the scope and practice of dentistry. He was ambitious to put the dentists of his time upon a higher professional level, and to make of dentistry a specialty in medicine. He applied to various medical schools to found dental chairs, and to teach oral pathology along with dental mechanics, as one of the branches of medicine, the graduating degree to be M.D., as with other medical specialties. But the men of his time were so short-sighted and of such constricted mental calibre, and the dentists were so uneducated, that the Baltimore schools declined. He therefore established a separate school, being forced to take this step. This school was the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, established in 1839,--the first in any country. The dentistry of that day was crude, and its teaching was comparatively inefficient. It was not until six years later that the next, the Cincinnati College of Dental Surgery was organized,--in 1845. Then, in time, followed Philadelphia. But all these colleges were separate institutions, teaching only those branches which it was held necessary that a dentist should know and having very little of medicine in their curriculum. They conferred the degree of D.D.S.

In 1868 Harvard University did what she ought to have{341} done at the outset. She opened a dental department and began the teaching of dentistry as a branch of medicine, establishing therefor a separate degree,--D.M.D.,--Den-tarioe Meclicince Doctor. In 1874 the University of Michigan established a dental department, and a little later the University of Pennsylvania did the same. These university schools gave an immensely widened scope to the study, which was made broader with each succeeding year.

There are now forty-five dental colleges in the United States. Forty of these are members of the National Association of Dental Faculties, organized for the purpose of securing uniformity in teaching and in graduating men. Membership in this association is a certificate of high standing and of comprehensive advantages.

Last year (1894) the number of students in dental colleges was 4979, while the number of graduates was 1208. At present nearly all the States have legislation governing the practice of dentistry, and often more strict than that regulating the practice of medicine. In New York the law places dentistry on precisely the same plane as medicine,--prescribes the same qualifications for matriculation, the same length of study, exactions for graduation, examination, etc. In other words, the law is quite as strict regarding admission to dental colleges as to medical. After 1897 at least a full high-school course will be demanded for matriculation, and from now on we may look forward to having a really educated dental profession.

INDEX.

Advances in other sciences, 153 Ægidius, 077 Æsclepiadæ, 011 Æsculapius, 007 Ætius, 049 Age of foundation, 012 Age of renovation, 012 Age of transition, 012 Agnew, D. Hayes, 295 Akenside, 213 Albiuus, 164 Albucassis, 063 Alchemists and charlatans, the, 187 Alchemy, 141 Alexander of Tralles, 050 Alexandria, library of, 031 school of, 032 Alkindus, 060 Ambulant physicians, 017 Amendment in medical affairs, 151 American teaching of to-dav, 298 Amphitheatres, dissecting, 111 Amussat, 269 Anæsthesia, history of, 300 Anatomic period, 012, 030 Anatomy and physiology of Galen, 039 Anatomy, chairs of, 111 Andral, 245 Andry, 177 Anel, 215 Animalculists, 183 Animism, 196 Animists, 183 Antiseptics, history of, 317 Antyllus, 051 Arabic period, 012, 057 review of the, 097 Archiaters, 053 Aretæus, 034 Argentier, John, 0146 Aristotle, 028 Arlt, 253 Arnold de Villeneuve, 088 Asclepiades of Bytlunia, 044 Aselli, 160 Astrology, 141 Astruc, 138, 214 Aubrey, 183 Auscultation, 262 Avenbrugger, Leopold, 210 Avenzoar, 064 Averroës, 064 Avicenna, 061

Bache, Franklin, 287 Baclitischua, 059 Bacon, Lord, 153 Bacon, Roger, 068 Baglivi, 162, 172 Baillie, 213, 224 Barba, 165 Barthez, 201 Bartholin, 161, 184 Barton, John Rhea, 293 Baseilliac, 214 Bayle, 245 Bell, Benjamin, 219 Bell, John, 219 Bell, Sir Charles, 219, 274 Bellini, 172 Benivieni, 114 Bernard, Claude. 247 Bernard the Provincial, 077 Bhang, 301 Bichat, 160, 162, 164, 208 Bienaise, 177 Bigelow, Henry J., 295 Bilguer, 215 Billroth, Theodor, 264 Blumenbach, 222 Boerhaave, 193 influence of, 168 Boerhaave's, clinics, 167 system of medicine, 194 theory of inflammation, 164 Bonnet, 270 Bordeu, 201 Borelli, 160, 172 Borri, 176 Botal, Leonard, 146 Boucliut, 259 Boyer, 267 Boylston, Dr., 279 Bouillaud, 244 Boulot, 177 Bourgeois, Louise, 166 Braid, Dr. James, 204 Braidism, 204 Brainard, Daniel, 295 Brasdor, 214 Brigham, 290 Brisseau, 178 Brissot, practice of bleeding by, 118 British surgeons, modern, 275 Brodie, Sir Benjamin, 273 Bronssais, 243 Brown, Dr. John, 200 Browne, Sir Thomas, 175 Brunner, 183 Brunonian doctrine, 205 Buck, Gurdon, 293 Bumstead, Freeman J., 289 Burking, 231

Cabalistic theory, 141 Cæsareau operation, 134 Camper, Peter, 219 Cardan, Jerome, 142 Cardinal powder, 165 Carion, Stellwag von, 253 Casserius, 162 Cataract, 178 Cathedral medical schools, 089 Cell, the term, 153 Cellular pathology, 256 Celsus, Cornelius, 036 Cesalpinus, 155 Chamberlain's obstetric forceps, 166 Chapman, Nathaniel, 286 Charitable institutions, ancient, 055 Chemical system of medicine, 169 Cheselden, 216 Cheyne, John, 248 Chinese, medicine of the, 005 Chiron, 007 Chloroform, discovery of, 303 Simpson's introduction, 313 Chopart, 314 Circulation, capillary, discovery of, 158 discovery of the, 155, 160 lesser, 112 failure to discover the, 113 Civiale, 269 Clark, Alonzo, 288 Classification of the history of medicine, 012 Clinical teaching, earliest systematic, 167 Cloquet, 269 Cnidus, Temple of Æsculapius at, 009 Cocaine, 314 Coction, doctrine of, 024 Colics, Abram, 248 Collot family of lithotomists, 177 Colonial physicians, 276 Columbus, 107, 155 Compass, invention of the, 099 Constantine the African, 074 Contrastimolo, 210 Cooper, Bransby, 273 Samuel, 273 Sir Astley, 271 Cornelius Agrippa, 139 Corpuscles of the blood, 158 Corvisart, 168 Cos, 019 Temple of Æsculapius at, 009 Cosmogony, Greek, 013 Countess's powder, 165 Cowper, 158, 182, 183 Cox, John R., 286 Crisis, doctrine of, 025 Cruveilhier, 245 Cullen, William, 198 Currie, 229 Czermak, 253

Dalton, John C., 288 Darwin, Charles, 237 Erasmus, 202 Daviel, 215 De Graaf, 183 De Haën, 200 De la Marche, Marguerite, 182 Delafield, Edward, 290 De Launay, 177 Delamotte, 166, 182 Delpech, 268 De Marque, 177 Denis, Jean Baptiste, 176 Denman, Thomas, 220 Dental surgery, the first college of, 341 Dentistry, ancient and mediaeval, 332 as a specialty of medicine, 337 in America, 341 of prehistoric times, 331 relation of, to modern surgical pathology, 340 Desault, P. J., 214, 267 Devanter, 166 Dewees, William P., 288 Diagnosis, exact methods in, 263 Dionis, Pierre, 177 Dissection, ceremonials previous to, 149 difficulties attending, 103 of human bodies, 32 Doctor's mob in New York, 284 Dodart, 172

Eberle, John, 286 Eclectics, 014, 046 Embalming, 003 Empedocles, 017 Empirics, 014 Engraving, 100 Engravings, first anatomical, 112 Epidanrus, Temple of Æsculapius at, 010 Erasistratus, 034 Erudite period, 013 Esquirol, 228 Ether, sulphuric, as an anæsthetic, 302 Eustachius, 107 Eve, Paul F., 291

Fabre, 164 Fabricius ab Aquapeiulente, 109 Fabricius Hildanus, 110, 178 Fallopius, 109 Faust, 100 Fermentation, the causes of, 319 Fernel, Jean, 115 Fidelis, on legal medicine, 167 Filkin, 217 First hospitals in United States, 283 First medical schools in the United States, 281 Flint, Austin, 288 Fothergill, John, 212 Francis, John W., 286 Frank, J. P., 212 Frère Come, 214 Frère Jacques, 177 Frick, 290 Fuchs, 253 Functions of the spinal nerves, discovery of the, 248

Gaddesden, John, 087 Galen, anatomy and physiology of, 039 Galen, Claudius, 036 Galen's, influence, 043 theories, 039 Gardiner, 199 Garengeot, 213 Gaub, 195 Gerard of Cremona, 090 Gerdy, 270 Germicides, internal use of, 329 Germ-theory of disease, 259 what it means, 323 Gibson, William, 263 Gilbert, of England, 087 Gimbernat, 215 Glisson, 163, 183 Goerter, 163 Goode, John Mason, 247 Goodwin, 160 Goursaud, 177 Graves, Robert, 248 Gray, John P., 290 Greece, medicine of, 016 Greek period, 012, 049 Gregory, 199 Griesinger, 254 Gross, Samuel P., 294 Guillemeau, Jacob, 131 Gunn, Moses, 295 Guthrie, 273 Guttenberg, 100 Guy de Chauliac, 093 Gymnasia, the, 018 Gymnasiarch, 018 Gymnast, 018

Hahn, 229 Hahnemann, 241 Haller, 160, 162, 163, 220 Ilaly-Abbas, 061 Hamilton, Frank H., 293 Harvey, Gideon, 175 J. William, 155 Hasheesh, 301 Hasner, 253 Havers, 183 Heberden, 212 Hebra, 253 Hebrews, medicine of the, 003 Heister, 215 Helvetius, 160 Henle, 254 Henri de Mondeville, 088 Herophilus, 033 Hessenfratz, 160 Heurne, Otto de, bedside instruction by, 167 Hewson, 161 Hiera sacra, 003 Highmore, 183 Hippocrates, 019 Hirudinomania, 244 Hoboken, 183 Hodgen, John T., 294 Hoffmann, Christopher Ludwig, 200 Hoffmann, Friedrich, 197 Hoffmann's dynamic system, 197 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 290 Home, Sir Everard, 224 Homoeopathy, 241 Horner, W. E., 287 Hospitals and clinics, 231 Howard, John, 212 Hufeland, 240 Humanization of vaccine-virus, 228 Hunter, John, 164, 218 William, 218 Hunters' study of the lymphatic system, the, 161 Huxham, John, 212 Hydrotlierapeutic system, 255 Hydrotherapy, 229

Iatrocliemical system, 169 Iatroliptes, 018 Iatromechanical school, 171 Infarctus, doctrine of, 201 Influence, of botany on medicine, 237 of chemistry on medicine, 238 of Darwin and Spencer on medicine, 237 of Harvey's discovery, 159 of physics on medicine, 238 of the art of printing, 100 of the French Revolution, 191 of the Northern invaders, 071 of the occult sciences, 139 of the Salernian school, 081 of zoology on medicine, 238 Inoculation, against small-pox, in America, 279 Inoculation, preventive, against smallpox, 225 with cow-pox, the first, 226 Irritability of tissues, discovery of, 163 Isopathy, 241

Jackson, Charles T., 310 Jacobus Sylvius, 103 Jager, 253 Jaxtthal, 253 Jenner, Edward, 226 Jesuit powder, 165 Jews, prejudice against the, 233 John Actuarius, 066 John of Procida, 079 Joubert's Popular Errors, 147

Kampf, 201 Kepler, 162 Keyes, 289 Kirkbride, 290

Laennec, 262 Lamballe, Joubert de, 270 Lancisi's clinic, 168 Lanfranc, 091 Langenbeck, Bernhard von, 264 Larrey, 267 Lavoisier, 160, 191 Lawrence, Sir William, 274 Le Boe, 167, 169 Le Cat, 214 Le Dran, 213 Léonicenus, Nicholas, 101 Lettsom, 213 Leuwenhoek, 158 Levret's modification of obstetrical forceps, 166 Ligatures, first use of, in amputations, 127 Linacre, Thomas, 101 Linnæus, 191 Lisfrauc, 269 Lister, 261 Lister's, studies and methods, 325 work, benefits of, 327 Liston, Robert, 274 Lithotomy, lateral, inventor of, 177 Lizars, John, 271 Long, Crawford, 301 Lorry, 228 Louis, 216 Lymph, diseovery of the circulation of, 158

Machaon, 010 McClellan, George. 293 Me Dowell, Ephraim, 267, 292 Magati, 176 Magendie. 216 Magie, 111 Magnetism, animal, 203 Maimonides, 065 Maitre, Jean, 178 Malgaigne, 270 Malpighi, 158 Mandragora, 301 Marcellus Donatus, 115 March, Alden. 295 Marchetti, 158, 176 Mareschal, Georges, 178 Marinus, 042 Marjoliu, 269 Mascagni, 161 Mauriceau, 166, 182 Mauthner, 253 Mayow, 160 Mead, Richard, 213 Meclianico-dynamic system of medicine, 197 Meckel, 162 Medical, journals in the United States, first, 285 jurisprudence, beginning of, 166 school of the natural sciences, 258 study under preceptors, 277 systems, promulgation of, 152 Medici puri, pretensions of, 189 Medicine, and surgery, approach of, 147 dogmatic school of, 013 Imperial school of, at Pekin, 006 physiological theory of, 243 of priesthood from, 147 Meiboni, 184 Meigs, John Forsyth, 289 Melainpus, 006 Mesmer, Frank, 203 Mesmerism, 203 Mesue, 060 Methodism, 013, 045 Microscope, 100 Midwifery during the seventeenth century, 182 Midwives, 165 Mondino, 092 Monro, Alexander, Sr., 216 Alexander, second and third, 216 Donald, 216 Monroes, the two, 164 Montpellier, the school of, 086 Morarnl, 213 Morel, 176 Morgagni, 224 Morton, Richard, 175 William T. G., 306 Mott, Valentine, 293 Muller, 222 Munich Clinical School, 258 Muralt, 180 Mutter, Thomas D., 293 Mystic period, 012

Natural history, the school of, 219 Natural philosophy, the school of, 249 Needham, 183 Nélaton, 270 Nepenthe, 301 New Vienna School, 250 Nitrous-oxide gas, 303 Nominalist, 069 Nuck, 183

Obstetrical forceps, invention of the, 166 Obstetricians and gynaecologists, American, 295 Obstetrics, development of, 166 Oken, 249 Ophthalmoscope, 263 Oppolzer, 253 Oribasins, 048 Orthopaedics, origin of name, 177 Ovariotomy, the first, 267

Pacchioni, 183 Palfyn's obstetrical forceps, 166 Paracelsus, 143 Paré, Ambroise, 123 Paré and the surgeons of St. Come, 131 Park, Henry, 217 Parker, Willard, 293 Paulas Ægineta, 051 Pecquet, 161

Percussion, invention of the art of, 210 Pergamos, library of, 030 Periodic physicians, 017 Peruvian bark, discovery of, 164 Petit, J. L., 213 Pen, 166 Peyer, 183 Peyronie, 213 Pfeufer, 254 Pharmacopolists, 054 Philosophic period, 012, 018 Phrenology, 163, 242 Physical examination, methods of, 263 Physick, Philip S., 291 Physiological medicine, 253 Pinel, 163, 196, 206, 228 Piorry, 262 Pitard, John, 092 Plater, Felix, 118 Plato, 027 Pleximeter, 263 Podalirius, 010 Porta, Giovanni Batista, 118 Portal, 223 Paul, 166, 182 Pott, Percival, 217 Pravaz, 269 Praxagoras, 027 Priessnitz, 255 Primitive period, 012 Pringle, Sir John, 212 Ptolemy Soter, 031 Purkinje, 222 Purmann, 180 Pythagoras, 015

Quesnay, 173, 214 Quintus, 042

Radcliffe, 213 Rademacher, 254 Rapid multiplication of scientific literature, 239 Rasori, 240 Rau, 180 Ray, Isaac, 290 Raymond Lulli, 087 Realism, 206 Realist, 069 Receptaculum chyli, discovery of, 161 Reflex action, discovery of, 248 Reform period, 013 Regulation of practice in colonial times, 285 Reil, 202 Religious orders and the sick, 095 Rembert Dodoens, 115 Reuss, 253 Rhazes, 060 Rhinoplasty, 176 Rhodes, Temple of Æsculapius at, 008 Richerand, 267 Richter, August Gottlieb, 216 Riolan, 128 Rivinius, 183 Rodger, J. K., 293 Roeschlaub, 240 Roger of Parma, 078 Roland of Parma, 078 Rolfink, 188 Rome during the Greek period, 053 Rokitansky, 250 Roser, 253 Rousset and the Cæsarean operation, 134 Roux, 269 Rufus of Ephesus, 042 Rush, Benjamin, 206, 283 Ruysch, 158

Sabatier, 214 Sacred period, 012 Salernum, school of, 072 Sandifort, 219 Sands, Henry B., 293 Sanson, 269 Santoro, 171 Santoro's thermometer, 171 Sauvage, 196 Saviard, 177 Scalpel, first use of, in dissecting, 112 Scarpa, 162, 215 Schaf hausen, 183 Schneider, 162, 184 School of rational medicine, 254 Scientific societies and journals, origin of, 151 Scultetus, 180 Seminalism, 259 Serapion, 060 Servetus, Michael, 112, 155 Severino, 119, 176 Shoeffer, 100 Shot wounds, the new teaching of Paré concerning, 132 Siegemundin, Justine, 182 Sigmund, 253 Simpson, Sir James Y., 274 Sims, J. Marion, 296 Skoda, 251 Smellie, William, 220 Smellie's modification of the obstetrical forceps, 166 Smith, Nathan R., 292 Societies and academies, foundation of, 235 Soemmering, 162, 222 Sol id ism, 198 Spontaneous generation of life disproven, 321 St. Come, College of, 92, 122 Stahl, 195 Stahl's pietistic system, 195 Steno, Nicholas, 159 Steno's duct, 159 Stethoscope, 262 Stimolo and contrastimolo, 240 Stoerck, 200 Stokes, William, 248 Stoll, 200 Student-life during the 15th and 16th centuries, 148 Surgery, achievements of, 263 reasons for neglect of, 120 Swammerdam, 153, 183 Sydenham, 152, 165, 173 Sylvius, 167 Syme, James, 274 Syphilis, wide-spread outbreak of, 136

Teeth, substitutes for human, 335 Telescope, invention of the, 099 Tenon, 215 Thaer, 199 Themison, 011 Theory of excitement, 210 Theosophy, 111 Thermometer, discovery of the, 171 Thoth, 002 Tourniquet, invention of, 176 Tourniquet, screw, invention of, 213 Transfusion of blood in man, the first, 176 Travers, Benjamin, 248, 273 Treatment of the insane, improvement in, 228 Troja, 228 Trotula, 079 Trousseau, 247 Türck, 253 Tyrrel, 273

Universities and royal scientific societies, 192 Vaccination, compulsory, 228 in the United States, the first, 279 the first, 227 Vagadasastir, 004 Valsalva, 176 Van Buren, William H., 289 Van Helmont, 168 Van Helmont's svstem of medicine, 168 Van Siebold, 216 Van Swieten, 168 Van Swieten and the Old Vienna School, 199 Velpeau, 270 Venesection, first account of, 010 revival of, 118 Verulam, Lord, 153 Vesalius, Andreas, 104 Vicq d'Azvr, 162, 164, 223 Vidal, 269 Vieussens, 162, 186 Virchow, Rudolph, 255 Vitalism, 201 modern, 255

Wainman, 217 Warren, John Collins, 291 Waterhouse, Dr., 279 Wells, Horace, 305 Werlhof, 211 Wharton, 183 White, Anthony, 216 Charles, 216 Wiehman, 211 William of Salicet, 091 Willis, Thomas, 163, 170 Winslow, 164, 223 Winternitz, 255 Wirsnng, 183 Wiseman, Richard, 180 Wistar. Caspar, 286 Wolf, 222 Wood, George R, 287 Wren, Sir Christopher. 182 Wunderlich, 250, 254

Zeissel, 253