Part 2

ELEANOR A. ORMEROD, Late Consulting Entomologist of the Royal Agricultural Society of England.

TORRINGTON HOUSE, ST. ALBAN’S, May 24, 1894.

CONTENTS.

PAGE INTRODUCTION— I. Subdivision of the Animal Kingdom 1 II. Review of the Structure and Vital Phenomena of Animals 3–16

=First Sub-Kingdom: VERTEBRATA (Backboned Animals)= 16–82 CLASS I: MAMMALIA (Sucklers) 21–48 ORDER: Carnivora (Beasts of Prey) 24–30 Family: Felidæ (Cat Family) 24–25 Family: Canidæ (Dog Family) 25–26 (Wolf, p. 25; Fox, p. 26.) Family: Mustelidæ (Weasel Family) 26–30 (Martens and Polecat, p. 26; Ferret, p. 27; Stoat and Weasel, p. 28; Mink, Otter, and Badger, p. 29.) ORDER: Insectivora (Insect-eating Mammals) 30–33 (Shrews, pp. 30, 31; Mole, pp. 31–33; Hedgehog, p. 33.) ORDER: Cheiroptera (Bats) 33–35 ORDER: Rodentia (Gnawing Mammals) 35–43 Family: Leporidæ (Hares and Rabbits) 36–38 (Hare and Rabbit, p. 37.) Family: Muridæ (Mouse Family) 38–41 (Hamster, Black Rat, and Brown Rat, p. 39; Common Mouse, Long-tailed Field Mouse, and Harvest Mouse, p. 40; Corn Mouse, p. 41.) Family: Arvicolidæ (Vole Family) 41–43 (Bank Vole and Water Vole, p. 42; Field Vole, pp. 42, 43; Southern Field Vole, p. 43.) ORDER: Ruminantia (Cud-chewing Mammals) 44–47 Family: Cervidæ (Deer Family) 45–47 (Red Deer, p. 46; Roebuck and Fallow Deer, p. 47.) ORDER: Multungula or Pachydermata (Many-hoofed or Thick-skinned Mammals) 48 (Wild Boar, p. 48.) ORDER: Solidungula (Single-hoofed Mammals) 48 CLASS II: AVES (Birds) 49–74 ORDER: Raptores (Birds of Prey) 53–55 ORDER: Scansores (Climbing Birds) 55–56 (Cuckoo, pp. 55, 56.) ORDER: Passeres (Perching Birds) 57–65 Group: Hirundinidæ (Swallows) 57–58 (Swallows and Martins, p. 57; Swift and Goatsucker, p. 58.) Group: Magnirostres (Large-beaked Perchers) 58–61 (Jackdaw, Crows, Rook, and Raven, pp. 59–61; Magpie and Jay, p. 61.) Group: Conirostres (Conical-beaked Perchers) 61–64 (Titmice, Larks, and Buntings, pp. 61, 62; Finches, p. 62; Sparrows, pp. 62, 63; Linnet, p. 63; Chaffinch, pp. 63, 64.) Group: Subulirostres (Awl-beaked Perchers) 64–65 (Wagtails, Pipits, and Hedge “Sparrow,” p. 64; Warblers, pp. 64, 65; Thrush-like birds, p. 65.) ORDER: Gyrantes (Doves) 65–67 (Wood Pigeon, pp. 66, 67; Turtle Dove and Rock Pigeon, p. 67.) ORDER: Rasores (Poultry) 67–68 (Pheasant, p. 68.) ORDER: Grallatores (Wading-Birds) 68–70 ORDER: Natatores (Swimming-Birds) 70–74 Family: Lamellirostra (Ducks) 71–73 Family: Longipennes (Gulls) 73–74 CLASS III.: REPTILIA (Reptiles) 74–79 CLASS IV.: AMPHIBIA (Amphibians) 79–81 CLASS V.: PISCES (Fishes) 81–82

=Second Sub-Kingdom: ARTHROPODA (Jointed-limbed Animals)= 82–206 CLASS I.: INSECTA (Insects) 85–194 ORDER I.: Coleoptera (Beetles) 94–118 Family: Carabidæ (Ground Beetles) 94–96 (Corn Ground Beetle, pp. 95, 96.) Family: Staphylinidæ (Rove Beetles) 96–97 Family: Silphidæ (Burying Beetles) 97 (Black Burying Beetle, and Beet Carrion Beetle, p. 97.) Family: Nitidulidæ (Shine Beetles) 97–98 (Turnip-flower Beetle, pp. 97, 98.) Family: Cryptophagidæ (Secret-eating Beetles) 98–99 (Beet Beetle, pp. 98, 99.) Family: Lamellicornia (Chafers) 99–102 (Cockchafer, pp. 100, 101; Buckwheat Beetle, p. 101; Rye and Garden Chafers, p. 102.) Family: Elateridæ (Click Beetles) 102–105 (“Wireworms,” pp. 103–105.) Family: Curculionidæ (Weevils) 105–110 (Seed Beetles, pp. 106, 107; Pea Weevil, pp. 107, 108; Mouse-tooth Weevils, p. 108; Gall Weevils, pp. 108–110.) Family: Chrysomelidæ (Leaf Beetles) 110–117 (Colorado Beetle, pp. 111–113; Tortoise Beetles, pp. 113, 114; Flea Beetles, 114–117.) Family: Coccinellidæ (Lady Birds) 117–118 ORDER II.: Orthoptera (Straight-winged Insects) 118–121 (Migratory Grasshopper, pp. 119, 120; Mole Cricket, pp. 120, 121.) ORDER III.: Neuroptera (Net-winged Insects) 121–123 (Dragon Flies, p. 122; Lace Flies, pp. 122, 123; Scorpion Flies, p. 123.) ORDER IV.: Hymenoptera (Membranous-winged Insects) 123–136 Family: Apidæ (Bees) 125–126 Family: Vespidæ (Wasps) 126–128 Family: Fossores (Digging Wasps) 128–129 Family: Formicidæ (Ants) 129–132 Family: Ichneumonidæ (Ichneumon Flies) 132–134 Family: Tenthredinidæ (Saw-flies) 134–136 (Turnip Saw-fly, pp. 134–136.) ORDER V.: Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths) 136–159 Family: Diurna (Butterflies) 137–142 (Whites, pp. 138–142.) Family: Noctuidæ (Owlet Moths) 142–152 (Surface Caterpillars, p. 143; Dart or Turnip Moth, pp. 143–145; Cabbage Moth, pp. 145–147; Lettuce and Pea Moths, p. 147; Grass-root Moth, p. 148; Couch-grass Moth, pp. 148, 149; Wheat-haulm Moth, p. 149; Grass Moth, pp. 149, 150; Darnel Moth, p. 150; Silver Y Moth, pp. 151, 152.) Family: Pyralidæ (Snout Moths) 152–155 Family: Tortricidæ (Leaf-rollers) 155–157 (Fawn-coloured Pea Moth, p. 156; Crescent Pea Moth, pp. 156, 157.) Family: Tineidæ (Leaf-miners) 157–159 (Carrot Moth, pp. 157, 158; Diamond-back Moth, pp. 158, 159.) ORDER VI.: Hemiptera (Half-winged Insects) 159–163 Family: Aphidæ (Plant Lice) 159–163 ORDER VII.: Physopoda (Bladder-footed Insects) 163–164 (Thrips, pp. 163, 164.) ORDER VIII.: Diptera (Flies) 164–193 Family: Culicinæ (Gnats) 164–165 Family: Gallicolæ (Gall Gnats) 165–170 (Hessian Fly, pp. 166–168; Scarlet Wheat Midge, pp. 168, 169; Wheat Midge, 169, 170.) Family: Rostratæ (Crane Flies) 170–172 Family: Muscæformes (Gnat Flies) 173–174 (Sand Flies, pp. 173, 174.) Family: Tabanidæ (Gad Flies) 174 Family: Muscidæ (True Flies) 175–184 (Caterpillar and Flesh Flies, p. 175; Common Flies, p. 175; Flower Flies, pp. 176, 177; Cheese-fly, p. 178; Ribbon-footed Corn Fly, pp. 178–182; Frit Fly, pp. 182–184.) Family: Syrphidæ (Hover Flies) 185 Family: Stomoxydæ (Stable Flies) 185–186 Family: Œstridæ (Bot Flies) 186–192 (Ox Warble-fly, pp. 186–188; Sheep Bot Fly, pp. 188–190; Horse Bot, etc., pp. 190–192.) Family: Pupipara (Louse Flies) 192–193 ORDER IX.: Aphaniptera (Fleas) 193 ORDER X.: Parasita (Lice) 193–194 CLASS II.: MYRIOPODA (Centipedes and Millipedes) 195 CLASS III.: ARACHNOIDEA (Scorpions, Spiders, Mites) 195–205 ORDER: Acaridea (Mites) 196–202 Family: Acaridæ (True Mites) 196–202 (Itch or Mange Mites, pp. 196–202.) Family: Ixodidæ (Ticks) 202–204 Family: Gamasidæ (Beetle Mites) 204 (Fowl Mite, p. 204.) Family: Trombidiidæ 205 (Plant Mite or “Red Spider,” p. 205.) CLASS IV.: CRUSTACEA (Crustaceans) 206

=Third Sub-Kingdom: VERMES (Worms)= 206–245 CLASS: ANNELIDA (Segmented Worms) 207–209 (Earthworms, pp. 207–209.) CLASS: NEMATELMINTHES (Round Worms) 209–231 ORDER: Nematoda (Thread Worms) 210–231 Family: Strongylidæ (Palisade Worms) 212–215 Family: Trichotrachelidæ (Whip Worms) 215–218 (Trichina, pp. 216–218.) Family: Filaridæ (Slender Thread Worms) 218 Family: Ascaridæ (Round Worms) 218–219 Family: Anguillulidæ (Eelworms) 219–231 (Stem Eelworm, pp. 220–224; Wheat Eelworm, pp. 224–227; Beet Eelworm, pp. 227–230; Root-knot Eelworm, p. 231.) CLASS: PLATYHELMIA (Flat Worms) 231–245 ORDER: Cestoda (Tapeworms) 231–240 ORDER: Trematoda (Flukes) 240–245

=Fourth Sub-Kingdom: MOLLUSCA (Mollusca)= 245–251 CLASS: CEPHALOPODA (Cuttlefishes) 247 CLASS: GASTROPODA (Snails and Slugs) 247–251 (Grey Field Slug, pp. 249–251.) CLASS: LAMELLIBRANCHIATA (Bivalve Molluscs) 251

=Fifth Sub-Kingdom: ECHINODERMATA (Hedgehog-skinned Animals)= 252–253

=Sixth Sub-Kingdom: CŒLENTERATA (Zoophytes)= 253–255

=Seventh Sub-Kingdom: PROTOZOA (One-celled Animals)= 255–256

ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG. PAGE 1. Schematic Longitudinal Section of the Human Body 4 2. Human Skeleton 7 3. Skeleton of an Ox 9 4. Bending of the Arm by Contraction of the Biceps Muscle 10 5. Diagram to explain the Action of the Motor and Sensory Nerves 11 6. Diagram of the Course of the Circulation 13 7. Life History of the Small-winged Gall-fly (Andricus terminalis) 15 8. Diagram of a Fish’s Heart 18 9. Diagram of a Mammal’s Heart 20 10. Diagram of a Reptile’s Heart 20 11. Diagram of a Frog’s Heart 21 12. Vertical Section of a Human Grinding Tooth 22 13. Crown of an Ox’s Grinder 22 14. Skull of Domestic Cat 25 15. Pine Marten (Mustela martes) 27 16. Skull of Mole 30 17. Common Shrew (Sorex vulgaris) 31 18. Skeleton of Bat 34 19. Skull of Squirrel 35 20. Abnormal Tooth in Hare 37 21. Hamster (Cricetus frumentarius) 38 22. Long-tailed Field Mouse (Mus sylvaticus) 40 23. Upper Back Teeth of Brown Rat 41 24. Upper Back Teeth of Water Vole 41 25. Southern Field Vole (Arvicola arvalis) 43 26. Skull of Sheep 44 27. Development of Roebuck Antlers 45 28. Wing of Buzzard 50 29. Section through Bird’s Egg 51 30. Eagle Owl (Otus maximus) 52 31. Head and Foot of Falcon 53 32. Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaëtus) 54 33. Barn Owl (Strix flammea) 55 34. Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) 56 35. Goatsucker (Caprimulgus europæus) 58 36. Head of Rook (Corvus frugilegus) 60 37. Head of Bullfinch (Pyrrhula vulgaris) 62 38. Nightingale (Daulias luscinia) 65 39. Wood Pigeon (Columba palumbus) 66 40. Capercailzie (Tetrao urogallus) 68 41. Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) 69 42. Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) 70 43. Crested and Little Grebes (Podiceps cristatus and minor) 71 44. Grey Goose (Anser cinereus) 72 45. Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) 74 46. Common Lizard (Lacerta agilis) 75 47. Adder (Pelias berus) 76 48. Grass Snake (Tropidonotus natrix) 77 49. Blindworm (Anguis fragilis) 78 50. Great Crested Newt (Triton cristatus) 79 51. Common Frog (Rana temporaria) 80 52. Natterjack (Bufo calamita) 81 53. The Perch (Perca fluviatilis) 82 54. Wood-borer (Sirex) 83 55. Centipede (Scolopendra morsitans) 84 56. Ground Beetle, showing Nervous System 84 57. Disarticulated Grasshopper 85 58. Head and Mouth-parts of a Ground Beetle 87 59. Leg of Ground Beetle 88 60. Stages of Silkworm Moth (Bombyx mori) 88 61. Stages of Hornet (Vespa crabro) 89 62. Migratory Grasshopper (Acrydium migratorium) 90 63. Looper Caterpillar 90 64. False Caterpillar 90 65. Stages of Cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris) 91 66. Larva of a Weevil 92 67. Stages of Aphis-eating Fly (Syrphus pyrasti) 92 68. A Ground Beetle (Carabus auronitens) 95 69. Corn Ground Beetle (Zabrus gibbus) and larva 95 70. A Rove Beetle (Staphylinus erythropterus) 96 71. Black Burying Beetle (Silpha atrata) and larva 96 72. Antennæ of Cockchafer 99 73. Abdomens of Common and Horse-chestnut Cockchafers 100 74. Skipjack (Agriotes lineatus) 102 75. Skipjack about to spring 103 76. Grain-plants sown deep and shallow, to show Wireworm attack 104 77. Bean Beetle (Bruchus rufimanus) 106 78. Pea Weevil (Sitones lineatus) 107 79. Mouse-tooth Weevil (Baridius chloris) and larva 108 80. Turnip Gall Weevil (Ceutorhynchus sulcicollis) 109 81. Colorado Beetle (Chrysomela decemlineata) 111 82. Stages of Colorado Beetle 112 83. Cloudy Tortoise Beetle (Cassida nebulosa) 113 84. Rape Flea Beetle (Psylliodes chrysocephalus) 114 85. Stages of Seven-spotted Lady-bird (Coccinella septempunctata) 118 86. Stages of Common Lace Fly (Chrysopa vulgaris) 122 87. Head of Honey Bee (Apis mellifica) 124 88. Common Wasp (Vespa vulgaris) and nest 127 89. Common Sand Wasp (Ammophila sabulosa) 129 90. Stages of Yellow-legged Ichneumon Fly (Microgaster glomeratus) 133 91. Turnip Saw-fly (Athalia spinarum) and caterpillars 135 92. Head of Butterfly 136 93. Scales from Butterfly’s Wing 136 94. Stages of Peacock Butterfly (Vanessa io) 138 95. Stages of Cabbage White (Pieris brassicæ) 139 96. Garden White (Pieris rapæ), male 141 97. Garden White, female and caterpillar 141 98. Green-veined White (Pieris napi) 142 99. Dart or Turnip Moth (Agrotis segetum) and caterpillar 143 100. Stages of Cabbage Moth (Mamestra brassicæ) 146 101. Grass Moth (Charæas Graminis) and caterpillar 150 102. Stages of Silver Y Moth (Plusia gamma) 151 103. Hop Snout Moth (Hypena rostralis) 153 104. Mother-of-Pearl Moth (Botys margaritalis) and larva 155 105. Fawn-coloured Pea Moth (Grapholitha nebritana) 156 106. Larch Moth (Coleophora laricella) 157 107. Wings of a Bug 159 108. Bean Aphis (Aphis papaveris) 160 109. Corn Thrips (Thrips cerealium) 163 110. Wheat Midge (Cecidomyia tritici) 165 111. Barley attacked by Hessian Fly 167 112. Larvæ of Wheat Midge (Cecidomyia tritici) 169 113. Stages of Daddy Longlegs (Tipula oleracea) 171 114. Rain Breeze Fly (Hæmatopota pluvialis) 174 115. Caterpillar Fly (Tachina fera) 175 116. Turnip infested by Cabbage Fly (Anthomyia brassicæ) 177 117. Ribbon-footed Corn Fly (Chlorops tæniopus) 179 118. Stages of ditto 181 119. Wheat Plant distorted by winter generation of ditto 181 120. Stages, etc., of Frit Fly (Oscinis frit) 183 121. Stages of Horse Bot Fly (Gastrus equi) 190 122. Horse Louse (Hæmatopinus macrocephalus) 194 123. Common Snake Millipede (Julus terrestris) 195 124. A Spider (Salticus scenicus) 196 125. Mange Mite of the Pig (Sarcoptes scabiei, var. suis) 197 126. Ditto 198 127. The Dog Tick (Ixodes ricinus) 203 128. Diagrammatic transverse section through a Thread Worm 210 129. Tail of male Strongylus armatus 213 130. Encapsuled Muscle Trichinæ in flesh 217 131. Male Intestinal Trichina 217 132. Rye Plant in the later stage of the Eelworm Disease 222 133. Ear Cockles of Wheat 225 134. Stages of Beet Eelworm (Heterodera Schachtii) 226 135. Tænia saginata 232 136. Common Tapeworm (Tænia officinalis) 234 137. Tapeworm Larva (Tænia solium) 234 138. Types of Bladder-worm 235 139. Measle of Tænia solium 235 140. Measles in Pork 236 141. Liver Fluke (Distoma hepaticum) 241 142. Life History of Liver Fluke 242 143. Diagrams of Molluscs 246 144. Grey Field Slug (Limax agrestis) 249 145. Common Starfish (Asterias rubens) 252 146. Freshwater Polype (Hydra) 254 147. A Jellyfish (Pelagia noctiluca) 254 148. A Sea Anemone (Sagartia nivea) 254 149. Proteus Animalcule (Amœba) 255

ZOOLOGY.

INTRODUCTION.

I. Subdivision of the Animal Kingdom.

There are animals so like one another that they are given the same name. Such animals are ranked in the same species. Animals which differ so much that they have to be referred to different species, but which notwithstanding agree in the majority of their characters, especially the most important ones, are placed in the same genus. Hare and rabbit, or horse and donkey, are reckoned as different species of the same genus. Genera resembling one another are united into a family; thus, the pine marten and the beech or stone marten both belong to the Marten genus (Martes), while the weasel and stoat are different species of the Weasel genus (Mustela); but these two genera are so similar that they are both placed in the same family, i.e. the Weasel family (Mustelidæ). Nearly related families together build up an order. Thus, the Weasel family, Dog family, Cat family, etc., collectively constitute the order of Carnivora, characterized, speaking generally, by the same kind of teeth, claws, habits, and food. Several related orders are united into a class. Thus, for example, carnivorous animals (Carnivora), ruminating animals (Ruminantia), gnawing animals (Rodentia), etc., constitute different orders of the class of Sucklers (Mammalia); while birds of prey (Raptores), pigeons (Gyrantes), and poultry (Rasores), are included in a second class, that of Birds (Aves). But both Birds and Mammals have a skeleton, of which the chief support is the backbone; on this account they are placed in a larger subdivision, the sub-kingdom of Backboned animals (Vertebrata); while snails are grouped under the sub-kingdom of Molluscs, millipedes and centipedes under that of Jointed-limbed animals (Arthropods).

In this way the animal kingdom is divided into sub-kingdoms, the sub-kingdoms into classes, the classes into orders, the orders into families, the families into genera, and the genera into species. Animals of the same species which differ from one another in more or less constant characters, belong to different races (domestic or geographical races).

There are many species of animals the external features of which are well known to ordinary folk, and which therefore possess a definite English name, but a much larger number, of the smaller forms especially, have no English name. It is, therefore, necessary to devise new names for these species. The English names, however, are liable to cause great confusion, since in different districts the same name is often applied to widely different animals. Besides this, distinct names have usually been given to successive stages in the life history of the same form: “wireworms,” for example, are the young state of the “click beetle.”

By using the scientific method of naming invented by Linnæus, confusion is made impossible. The Latin names of this naturalist have the great advantage that they not only give a perfectly distinct name to any particular species, but also at the same time show the genus to which it belongs. Each kind of animal possesses, in fact, two names; just in the same way as every person possesses at least two names, a Christian name and a surname. The generic name comes first, and is, of course, common to all animals of the same genus. The second name is the specific one, and belongs exclusively to animals of the same species. The hare and rabbit, for example, are both included in the genus Lepus. The Latin name of the first is Lepus timidus; that of the second, Lepus cuniculus. Horse = Equus caballus; ass = Equus asinus.

II. Review of the Structure and Vital Phenomena of Animals.

I select as a point of departure the human body, and the bodies of domestic animals, because my readers are best acquainted with these.

The limbs consist, beginning on the outside, of skin, flesh, and bone. The same parts can also be distinguished in the head, neck, and trunk; but in these divisions of the body they enclose a cavity, the body-cavity, which, again, contains various parts (“organs”), which are not everywhere attached to the body-wall. Fig. 1 represents a longitudinal section through the body. The skin is represented by a line, flesh and internal lining are shaded, while the bones are black. These parts form together the body-wall. In front the body-wall encloses a cavity, the body-cavity (Kh.), which in Mammals is divided into two sections (thoracic cavity, Bz.h, and abdominal cavity, B.h.) by the midriff (diaphragm). In the thoracic cavity are found the lungs and heart (H), also most of the gullet or upper part of the gut; the abdominal cavity contains the remainder of the often much-coiled gut, which in one place widens into the stomach (M), also the kidneys, spleen, and parts connected with the gut (e.g. the liver). The cavities are bounded behind by the backbone (vertebral column), which is made up of many flattened vertebræ. The uppermost vertebra supports the skull, which encloses a cranial cavity (Sch.h.) continuous with a vertebral canal bounded by the vertebræ. Cranial cavity and vertebral canal form together a second body-space, in which are contained the brain and spinal cord.

FIG. 1.—Schematic Longitudinal Section of the Human Body. ]

We will now consider the individual parts of the body, beginning with the skeleton. The axis of the skeleton is formed by the vertebral column (spine), which is composed of flat bones, the vertebræ. A vertebra usually consists of (1) the body, which occupies the front; (2) the arch, which possesses several projections or processes (neural spine, transverse processes, articular processes) and encloses the vertebral canal (W.h.). All mammals have seven neck or cervical vertebræ (Fig. 2, 1); while the number of the remaining vertebræ varies according to the species. The cervical vertebræ, which support the head, are followed by the dorsal or thoracic vertebræ (12 in man, Fig. 2, 2), and these by the strong loin or lumbar vertebræ (5 in man, Fig. 2, 3). Cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebræ are movable, but, in man, the last-named are followed by five vertebræ immovably united together to make up the sacrum, and these again by tail- or caudal vertebræ. Man has four such vertebræ, all poorly developed, and fused with one another (Fig. 2, 5); but in many animals there are a large number, movably united to make up a tail.

The ribs, which in mammals bound the chest, are jointed to the thoracic vertebræ. Man has 12 pairs of ribs; each rib consists of a bony part behind and a gristly (cartilaginous) part in front. The so-called true ribs (Fig. 2, 14) [the upper pairs] are movably united with the breast-bone, but this is not the case with the false ribs (Fig. 2, 15).

In the head we distinguish the brain-case or cranium, and the skeleton of the face. The first contains the cranial cavity in which the brain is enclosed. We distinguish—2 frontal bones (fused together in man, Fig. 2, 6); 2 parietal bones (7); 2 temporal bones (8); an occipital bone (9) composed of several pieces fused together, perforated by the foramen magnum [where brain and spinal cord unite], and bearing two elevations or condyles [for effecting union with the backbone]; and the sphenoid and ethmoid bones which make up the base of the cranium. The facial skeleton consists of the framework of the jaws and palate, and, together with some of the cranial bones, bounds the cavities in which the eyes are contained (orbits), and the nasal cavities. It consists of the maxillary bones (Fig. 2, 12), the premaxillary bones (Fig. 3, 7,—in man these 4 bones are fused together into one piece), the nasal bones, the lachrymal bones, the ploughshare bone (vomer), the turbinated bones, the cheek-bones (or malars, Fig. 2, 11), the palate-bones, and the lower jaw (Fig. 2, 13). (The last originally consists of two symmetrical halves.)

The upper and lower limbs are built on the same type, and therefore consist of corresponding parts (cp. Fig. 2). The more similar the functions of the two pairs, the closer their resemblance. In the ox they are much more alike than in man; in the bird, on the contrary, the similarity is much less. A distinction can be drawn in both limbs between the bony girdles (shoulder-girdle and hip-girdle), which serve for union with the trunk-skeleton, and the different subdivisions of the limbs themselves. I place side by side the parts of the arm and leg of man.