PART II.

CHAPTER III.

SHOEING HEALTHY HOOFS.

A. Examination of a Horse Preliminary to Shoeing.

An examination should be made while the animal is =at rest=, and afterwards while =in motion=. The object of the examination is to gain accurate knowledge of the direction and movements of the limbs, of the form and character of the feet and hoofs, of the manner in which the foot reaches and leaves the ground, of the form, length, position, and wear of the shoe, and distribution of the nail-holes, in order that at the next and subsequent shoeings all ascertained peculiarities of hoof-form may be kept in mind and all discovered faults of shoeing corrected.

The examination is best conducted in the following order: The horse should first be led at a walk in a straight line from the observer over as level a surface as possible, then turned about and brought back, that the examiner may notice the direction of the limbs and the manner in which the hoofs are moved and set to the ground. While the animal is moving away the observer notices particularly the hind limbs, and as it comes towards him he examines the fore-limbs. Then a few steps at a trot will not only show whether or not the animal is lame, but will often remove all doubt in those cases in which, while the animal was walking, the examiner was unable to make up his mind as to which was the predominating position of the limb. The problem presented is, therefore, to determine whether or not the direction of the limbs, the lines of flight of the hoofs, and the manner in which they are set down and picked up are regular. If there are deviations from the normal they will fall either into the base-wide and toe-wide group or into the base-narrow and toe-narrow group. When clear upon these points the horse is allowed to stand quietly, and the observer, placing himself in front, examines the foot more closely, fixes the direction of the foot-axis clearly in his mind, marks also the form and character of the hoofs and the position of the coronets, as far as these parts can be inspected from in front. At the same time each hoof should be closely inspected to determine whether the slant of both quarters corresponds to the direction of the long pastern, and whether the course of the wall from the coronet to the plantar border is straight or bent in or out (contraction, fulness). Walls curved from above to below always indicate an unnatural height of some section of the wall and a displacement of the base of support of the foot. In order to gain accurate and complete knowledge of the position of the limbs, the flight of the hoofs, and the manner of setting the foot to the ground, the horse must frequently be moved back and forth many times, especially when the standing position is somewhat irregular and the hoofs are of different shapes.

At this point begins the examination of the position of the limbs, and the form of the feet and hoofs, in profile. After casting a glance over the entire body, so as to gain an idea of the animal’s weight, height, and length, the attention is turned to the position and direction of the limbs and hoofs. The eye should particularly note whether the form of the hoof corresponds to the position of the limb, and, furthermore, whether the slant of the pastern is the same as that of the wall at the toe,—that is, whether the foot-axis is straight or broken; also whether the toes and quarters are parallel, for the toe is sometimes bulging (convex) or hollowed out (concave) between the coronet and plantar border, and the quarters are frequently contracted and drawn or shoved under the foot (weak quarters). If the wall present rings the observer should note their position with reference to one another and to the coronet, and also their extent, and, furthermore, should determine whether or not they cross one another (thrush of the frog). At the same time he should notice the length of the shoes.

Next, the feet should be raised and the examiner should notice the width of the hoof, the arching of the sole, the character of the frog, the position of the bulbs of the heel, as well as the presence of any cracks or clefts in the wall. Then the old shoes should be examined as to their age, form, the distribution and direction of their nail-holes (“punching”), position, and wear. With respect to the form of the old shoe, one should observe whether or not it corresponds to the form of the hoof. The same careful examination should be made of the number and distribution of the nail-holes. As regards the position of the shoe, one must first ascertain whether it completely covers the bearing-surface of the wall, and whether the shoe extends beyond the wall at any point and has caused interfering or given rise to irregular wear. Finally, the wear of the shoe should be observed, and the following points borne in mind: One-sided wear, uneven setting down of the feet, and an unnatural course of the wall are often found together, especially when uneven wearing of the shoe has existed for a long time,—that is, during several shoeings. As a rule, in such a case the more worn branch of the shoe is too near the centre of the foot, and the opposite branch too far from the centre (too “full”); in other words, the base of support (shoe) has been shifted too far in the direction of the less worn branch. Moreover, increased wear of a part of a shoe is an indication that the section of the wall above it is too high (too long) (Fig. 89), or that the wall upon the opposite side of the foot is too low (short). The twisting movement of many hind feet should, from physiological reasons, not be hindered by shoeing.

B. Raising and Holding the Feet of the Horse to be Shod.

This can always be done without much trouble if the horse has been accustomed to it from early colthood. Certain rules governing the manner of taking hold of the feet, and of afterwards manipulating them, are of value.

A shoer should =never grasp a foot suddenly=, or with both hands. The horse should first be prepared for this act. First see that the horse stands in such a position that he can bear his weight comfortably upon three legs. This is well worth noticing, and if the horse does not voluntarily assume such an easy position, move him gently until his feet are well under his body.

If the shoer, for example, wishes to raise the left fore foot for inspection, he stands on the left side facing the animal, speaks quietly to him, places the palm of the right hand flat upon the animal’s shoulder, and, at the same time, with the left hand strokes the limb downward to the cannon and seizes the cannon from in front. With the right hand he now gently presses the horse towards the opposite side, and the foot becoming loose as the weight is shifted upon the other leg, he lifts it from the ground. The right hand now grasps the pastern from the inside followed by the left hand upon the inside and the right hand on the outside; then, turning partly to the right, the holder supports the horse’s leg upon his left leg, in which position he should always stand as quietly and firmly as possible. If, now, the shoer desires to have both hands free to work upon the hoof, he grasps the toe with the left hand in such a manner that the toe rests firmly in the palm while the four fingers are closely applied to the wall of the toe, takes a half step toward the rear, passes the hoof behind his left knee into his right hand which has been passed backward between his knees to receive it, and drawing the hoof forward outward and upward supports it firmly on his two knees,—the legs just above the knees being applied tightly against the pastern. The forefoot should not be raised higher than the knee (carpus), nor the hind foot higher than the hock, nor either foot be drawn too far backward. The correct standing position of the shoer or floorman while holding a front foot is shown in Fig. 91. Shortness of stature (5′-5′.6″) is desirable in a floorman.

In lifting the left hind foot the animal should be gently stroked back as far as the angle of the hip, against which the left hand is placed for support, while the right hand strokes the limb down to the middle of the cannon, which it grasps from behind. While the left hand presses the animal’s weight over towards the right side, the right hand loosens the foot and carries it forward and outward from the body so that the limb is bent at the hock. The holder then turns his body towards the right, brings his left leg against the anterior surface of the fetlock-joint, and carries the foot backward, at which time his left arm passes over the horse’s croup and above and to the inner side of the hock. Finally, both hands encompass the long pastern.

If the right feet are to be raised, the process is simply reversed.

In raising the feet no unnecessary pain should be inflicted by pinching, squeezing, or lifting a limb too high. The wise shoer avoids all unnecessary clamor and disturbance; quiet, rapid, painless methods avail much more. In dealing with young horses the feet should not be kept lifted too long; let them down from time to time. In old and stiff horses the feet should not be lifted too high, especially in the beginning of the shoeing.

Vicious horses must often be severely handled. Watch the play of the ears and eyes continually, and immediately punish every exhibition of temper either by jerking the halter or bridle vigorously, or by loud commands. If this does not avail, then if soft ground is at hand make the horse back as rapidly as possible for some time over this soft surface; it is very disagreeable and tiresome to him. To raise a hind foot we may knot a strong, broad, soft, plaited band (side-line) into the tail, loop it about the fetlock of the hind foot, and hold the end. This often renders valuable service. The holder seizes the band close to the fetlock, draws the foot forward under the body, and then holds it as above described. The use of such a band compels the horse to carry a part of his own weight, and at the same time hinders him from kicking. Before attempting to place this rope or band about the fetlock, the front foot on the same side should be raised.

The various sorts of twitches are objectionable, and their use should not be allowed unless some painful hoof operation is to be done. The application of the tourniquet, or “Spanish windlass,” to the hind leg is equally objectionable.

Those horses which resist our attempts to shoe them we do not immediately cast or place in the stocks, but first have a quiet, trustworthy man hold them by the bridle-reins and attempt by gentle words and soft caresses to win their attention and confidence.

Ticklish horses must be taken hold of boldly, for light touches of the hand are to such animals much more unpleasant than energetic, rough handling. Many ticklish horses allow their feet to be raised when they are grasped suddenly without any preparatory movements.

C. Removing the Old Shoes.

If a horse’s hoofs are healthy, all the shoes may be taken off at the same time, but there are certain diseases of the hoof in which this should not be done.

The rule to follow in removing every shoe is to draw it cautiously, not wrench it away with violence. Hoofs which are dirty should first be cleansed, preferably with a stiff brush. Next, the clinches should be carefully lifted by means of a rather dull clinch cutter (Fig. 93), without injuring the horn of the wall. In order, now, that the nails may be removed singly, the shoe must be slightly lifted. This may be done in one of two ways. The shoer may use a pair of pincers (Fig. 94), with broad bills which will encompass the branch of the shoe and come well together underneath it. The handles of the pincers are then moved in the direction of the branches of the shoe. The second method consists in raising the branches of the shoe by driving the nail-cutter from behind between the shoe and hoof and using it as a lever or pry to loosen the shoe.

Violent and excessive twisting of the hoof and straining of ligaments may easily occur, but the smith should guard against them by supporting the hoof with the left hand or with the leg just above the knee, while loosening the shoe.

D. Preparing the Hoof for the Shoe.

This preparation is usually termed paring, trimming, or dressing. It is a most important step in the process of shoeing, and its object is to shorten the hoof, which has grown too long under the projection of the shoe, and prepare it to receive the new shoe. The instruments needed for this work are the rasp and the hoof-knife (Fig. 95); upon large and hard hoofs a pair of sharp nippers (Fig. 96), or a sharp =hewing knife, with broad handle and perfectly flat, smooth sides=, may be used, since these instruments will considerably facilitate and hasten the work.

After the shoer has carefully examined the hoofs in the manner described upon pages 90, 91, and 92, and has fixed in mind the relation of the height of the hoofs to the size and weight of the body, he cleanses the hoof and removes all stubs of old nails. At the same time he should be asking himself if, where, and how much horn is to be removed. In all cases all loosely attached fragments of horn are to be removed, for example, chips of horn produced by repeated bending and stretching of the lower border of the wall. The sole is then freed from all flakes of dead horn. The shoer then runs the rasp around the outer border of the wall and breaks it off to the depth to which he thinks it should be shortened, and then =cuts the wall down to its union with the sole, so that at least one-eighth of an inch of the edge of the sole lies in the same level as the bearing-surface of the wall=. Finally, the wall, white line, and outer margin of the sole, forming the “bearing-surface,” must be rasped until they are perfectly horizontal, except that at the toe of fore-hoofs this bearing-surface may be rasped slightly upward (rolled toe).

In dressing the hoof the =branches= of the frog should always be left prominent enough to project beyond the bearing-surface of the quarters about the thickness of an ordinary flat shoe. If it be weakened by paring, it is deprived of its activity, shrinks, and the hoof becomes narrow to a corresponding degree. The frog should, therefore, be trimmed only when it is really too prominent. However, loose and diseased particles of horn may be trimmed away when it is affected with thrush.

The bars should be spared and never =shortened= except when too long. Their union with the wall at the quarters must in no case be weakened, and never cut through (opening up the heels). They should be left as high as the wall at the quarters, or only a little less, while the branches of the sole should lie about one-eighth of an inch lower.

The buttress (angle formed by the union of wall and bar) requires special attention. In healthy unshod hoofs the bars run backward and outward in a straight line from the anterior third of the frog. In shod hoofs, however, it happens that the buttresses gradually lengthen, curl inward, and press upon the branches of the frog, causing the latter to shrink. In such cases the indication is to remove these prolongations of horn from the buttresses so as to restore to the bars their normal direction.

=The sharp edge of the plantar border of the wall should be broken away with a rasp until the relative thickness of the wall equals its absolute thickness.= (Fig. 97). However, in healthy hoofs, that is, in those whose walls are straight from the coronet to the ground, the outer surface of the wall should =never= be rasped. The only exceptions to this rule are those cases in which there is an outward bending of the lower edge of the wall, most frequent on the inner side wall and quarter.

With respect to the inclination of the ground-surface of the hoof to the direction of the foot-axis, as viewed from in front, the following facts are established:

In the regular standing position of the limbs (seen from in front) the plantar surface of a hoof is at right angles to the foot-axis, and the outer and inner walls are of equal heights.

In the base-wide position of the limbs the plantar hoof-surface is more or less inclined to the foot-axis, usually to a very small degree, and the outer wall is somewhat higher (longer) and more slanting than the inner.

In the base-narrow position of the limbs the plantar hoof-surface is more or less inclined to the direction of the foot-axis, usually quite considerably, and the inner wall is somewhat higher than the outer.

The foot is observed from the side in order to determine the proper relation of the length of the toe to the height of the quarters.

In this also the foot-axis is our guide. If this axis is as it should be, the wall at the toe and the long pastern will have the =same slant= (Figs. 67, 68 and 69). If the hoof has become too long under the protection of the shoe, this will be shown by the foot-axis being no longer a straight line, but broken backward at the coronet (Fig. 98); that is, the hoof in comparison with the fetlock will be too slanting. By shortening the toe more than the quarters this faulty relation will be corrected (Fig. 100) and the foot restored to its proper slant. If the quarters are too long (too high) in comparison with the length of the toe, the foot-axis will be broken forward at the coronet (Fig. 99), and the hoof will be too upright. By shortening the quarters more than the toe the foot-axis may be made straight. =The plantar surface of the hoof is therefore correct (balanced) when the horse places the foot flat upon the ground in travelling=, and when the lines bounding the hoof, viewed from in front, from behind, and in profile, correspond to the direction of the three phalanges (foot-axis).

Finally, this fact should be emphasized, that in changing from flat shoes to those with calks, or the reverse, the hoofs must first be dressed in accordance, so that the foot axes will remain straight, and the feet be set always flat to the ground when the new shoes are on. Each hoof, when ready for the new shoe, should be let down and the horse allowed to stand upon it while it is again carefully examined and closely compared with the opposite hoof. Only after such close inspection has proved the dressing to be faultless can the hoof be considered as properly prepared and ready for the shoe. The two front hoofs and the two hind hoofs, when the legs are in the same position, should not only be of equal size, but also in proper relation to the size and weight of the body.

E. Preparing the Hoof for going Barefoot.

This becomes necessary when the nature of the ground and the kind of service required of the horse render shoeing unnecessary. However, to go barefoot the hoof must have =plenty of horn=. After removing the shoes the =frog should be pared down nearly to the level of the wall=, and the sharp outer edge of the wall well =rounded off= with the rasp, in some cases as far as the white line, otherwise large pieces of the wall will readily break away. Hoofs with very slanting walls must be more strongly rounded off than upright hoofs. Going barefoot strengthens the hoofs. From time to time the condition of these shoeless hoofs should be ascertained by inspection, and any growing fault in shape or direction of the horn immediately corrected. It quite frequently happens that the sharp edge of the wall must be repeatedly rounded, especially on very oblique walls (outer half of base-wide hoofs), and the quarters may require frequent shortening, because they are not always worn away as fast as the horn at the toe.

F. Making Shoes.

Besides good, tough iron for the shoe, we need an anvil with a round horn and a small hole at one end, a round-headed turning-hammer, a round sledge, a stamping hammer, a pritchel of good steel, and, if a fullered shoe is to be made, a round fuller. Bodily activity and, above all else, a good eye for measurement are not only desirable, but necessary. A shoe should be made thoughtfully, but yet quickly enough to make the most of the heat.

On a shoe we distinguish an outer and an inner branch. The anterior portion, formed by the union of the two branches, is called the toe. The upper surface, upon which the hoof rests, is called the hoof-surface, and the under surface, which is in contact with the ground, the ground-surface. That portion of the hoof-surface which is in direct contact with the lower border of the wall, the white line, and a narrow margin of the sole is termed the bearing-surface, and when necessary “concaving” (seating) extends from this to the inner border of the shoe. On the ground-surface is seen the “fullering” or “crease.”

=The iron= of which horseshoes are made is derived from the natural iron ore. Iron used for technical purposes is not chemically pure. Pure iron is rather too soft, and is therefore mixed with different substances, mostly with “carbon,” the most important ingredient of our fuel. Of course, the iron contains a very small quantity of carbon (0.5 to 5 per cent.). When iron contains more than 2.2 per cent. of carbon it is hard, brittle, and more easily melted, and is known as crude iron, or raw iron, because it is derived from the raw product,—black ore. The melted crude iron is called cast iron. Iron is ductile when it contains less than 2.2 per cent. of carbon, and is then called forge iron, or wrought iron. Wrought iron is fusible only at a high temperature. Only weldable iron containing less than 1.6 per cent. of carbon is suitable for general use. Of this iron we distinguish two sorts,—steel and wrought iron. A larger percentage of carbon is found in steel than in wrought iron. Steel is hard, can be tempered, and may be called tempered wrought iron. In order to temper or harden steel, bring it to a cherry-red heat, and then cool it suddenly by dipping it in cold water or wet sand. The tempered steel can again be softened as desired by heating and slowly cooling. By heating to a high temperature in a forge wrought iron will become doughy, and may then be intimately united (welded) with another piece at the same temperature by pressure or hammering. This property is called weld-ability; it is of great importance in making horseshoes. The heating of iron until it reaches the welding stage is called getting a “heat.” The act of welding wrought iron with steel is called “steeling.”

Regarding =the tools=, the following hints are sufficient:

The anvil should have a level, smooth, flat steel face.

Likewise, the round head and flat face of both turning-hammer and sledge should be smooth.

On the fullering-hammer (Fig. 101) the left side is flat, the right side convex, and the cutting edge has slightly rounded corners.

The hardy, fullering-hammer, and cold chisel should be flawless on the edge.

The punch (Fig. 102), used to make the nail-holes in the shoe, has a dull point, which should correspond in size with the head of the horseshoe-nail and have slightly rounded corners.

The pritchel (Fig. 103) should not taper to a point, but should end in a rectangular surface whose length is twice its width, in order to punch iron through the shoe under the blow of the hammer.

Making the Shoe.

To make a flat shoe, take the length of the hoof from the point of the toe to the buttress and the greatest width of the hoof; these two measurements, when added together, give the length of the bar for the shoe. The bar should be of such width and thickness as will require the least amount of working. For a bar-shoe or a shoe with heel-calks the bar must be correspondingly longer.

Should we wish to preserve the exact outline of the plantar border of the wall, we may advantageously use such a podometer as is shown in Fig. 104. This consists of a perforated sheet-iron plate one-sixteenth to one-twelfth of an inch thick. This is laid upon the hoof, and the outline of the wall marked upon it with chalk.

If necessary, the hoof may be set on a piece of smooth, stiff wrapping paper or card-board, and the outline of the wall closely traced with a lead pencil.

To make a =front shoe= (Figs. 107 and 108), heat the bar white-hot just beyond its middle, place the head of the sledge hammer across one end of the face of the anvil, hold the unheated end of the bar on the head of the sledge,—the heated end resting on the face of the anvil, and bend the bar into a half-circle with the round head of the turning-hammer. (The outer branch of all shoes is made first; in making pairs the right shoe is made first.) The extreme end of the heated bar is drawn out to the desired width and thickness with the sledge. The bent branch is then placed obliquely across the heel of the horn of the anvil, is turned over toward the right till it rests upon an edge, and is then bevelled diamond-shaped from the toe to the end of the branch. [The edge in contact with the horn is the inner edge of the right branch (outer branch) of the right shoe; the edge beaten down by the hammer is the outer edge of the outer branch.] The branch is then flattened on the anvil because in the bending the outer edge has been stretched and thinned, while the iron of the inner edge has been crowded together (back-set) and thickened. In flattening, the shoe should be left a trifle thinner on the inner edge. The branch is again placed over the horn, and gone over lightly with the flat head of the turning-hammer and brought to a proper shape. It is now to be concaved with or without the help of the sledge, or the concaving may be omitted. The concaving should end about three-fourths of an inch from the end of the branch. Now turn the branch and fuller it, or fuller it first and concave afterwards. The fuller should be set in about one-twelfth of an inch from the edge for small shoes, somewhat more for large shoes, and led from the end of the branch towards the toe, twice being necessary to make the fullering of sufficient depth. Next, stamp the holes, punch them through with the pritchel, run over the surfaces, go over the outer edge of the shoe upon the horn, and, finally, hammer the bearing-surface smooth and horizontal. The left branch is made in the same way, except that it is turned to the left and the fullering carried from the toe to the heel. =Any ordinary shoe can and should be completed in the rough in two heats.= One pair of shoes requires from eight to fifteen minutes.

The =hind shoe= (Fig. 116) is made in like manner, but the branches are not bent in a circle but given that form shown in Fig. 106. Concaving is not necessary; it is sufficient merely to round the inner edge of the web.

Since in bending the shoe, and especially the toe of a hind shoe, the inner edge is crowded together (back-set) and thickened to the same extent that the outer edge is stretched and thinned, we must remember to do away with these inequalities of thickness and strain by hammering the shoe smooth.

Peculiarities of the Shoe.

They are dependent upon the structure, direction, and position of the leg and hoof, as well as upon the horse’s service and the nature of the ground. Since the shoe is an artificial base of support, and since a proper surface of support is of the greatest importance in preserving the soundness of the feet and legs, careful attention must be given to this matter. Naturally shoes designed for the various forms of hoofs must present equally great and equally numerous differences of form, as well as other peculiarities.

=General Properties.= 1. =Form.=—A form corresponding to the shape of the hoof is indispensable in every shoe. Front and hind and right and left shoes should be sharply defined and easily distinguishable. Front shoes must, above all else, be circular round cut the toe. Hind shoes, on the contrary, should be round pointed at the toe, yet not too much so, but as in Fig. 116.

2. =Width.=—All shoes should be wider webbed (more covered) at the toe than at the ends of the branches. The medium width should be about twice the thickness of the wall.

3. =Thickness.=—Each shoe should, in general terms, be so thick that it need not be renewed under four weeks. Lungwitz found that the average required thickness is about seven-sixteenths of an inch. Of course, this thickness must be diminished or increased according to the rapidity of wear of the shoe. Shoes without calks should be of uniform thickness, unless there are special reasons for making them otherwise.

4. =Length.=—For draft-horses they should be long enough to reach the bulbs of the heel, otherwise shorter, though in other respects they may differ (see “special properties”), but should in all cases completely cover the bearing-surface of the hoof.

5. =Surfaces.=—That part of the hoof-surface of the shoe which is in contact with the hoof (bearing-surface of the shoe, Fig. 109, a) should be horizontal and wide enough to cover the wall, the white line, and from a twelfth to an eighth of an inch of the outer edge of the sole. Shoes for large hoofs require a broader bearing-surface than those for small hoofs. The concaving, or “seating” (Fig. 109, b), should be made deeper or shallower, according to the nature of the sole. Shoes for hoofs with strongly arched (very concave) soles, do not require any concaving (hind hoofs, narrow fore-hoofs). The object of concaving is to prevent pressure of the shoe upon the horny sole except at its margin.

The ground-surface of the shoe should be flat and perfectly horizontal, except at the toe, which may be turned upward (rolled toe, “rolling motion”).

6. =Borders.=—The outer border should usually be moderately base-narrow,—that is, the circumference of the ground-surface of the shoe should be less than the circumference of its hoof-surface; in other words, the entire outer border of the shoe should be bevelled under the foot. Shoes made base-narrow are not so easily loosened, and materially assist in preventing interfering. The inner border should be moderately rounded.

7. =The “Fullering”= (Fig. 109, c).—In depth it should be about two-thirds the thickness of the shoe, of uniform width, and “clean.” A fullering is not absolutely necessary, but it makes the shoe lighter in proportion to its size, facilitates a uniform placing of the nail-holes, renders the ground-surface somewhat rough, and, because it is rather difficult to make, increases the workman’s skill.

8. =Nail-Holes= (Fig. 109, d).—=The importance of the nail-holes=, as regards their character, number, distribution, depth, and direction, =cannot be over-estimated=, because by the nails which are driven through them the stability of the shoe upon the hoof should be maintained without injuring the sensitive structures, splitting the horny wall, or immoderately interfering with the elasticity of the foot. Each nail-hole should taper uniformly from the ground to the hoof-surface (funnel-shaped). For a medium-weight shoe six nail-holes are sufficient, while for all heavy shoes, especially those with toe- and heel-calks, eight are indicated; however, it should by no means be said that every nail-hole should contain a nail. Hind shoes usually require one more nail-hole than front shoes, yet seldom more than eight. In front shoes the nail-holes should be placed in the anterior half of the shoe (Figs. 107 and 108), while in hind shoes they are to be placed in the anterior two-thirds of the shoe (Fig. 116), and in both cases so distributed that the toe shall be without nail-holes, except in those shoes in which it may be desirable to omit the nail-holes in an entire branch (Fig. 153). =The depth of the nail-holes=—that is, their distance from the outer edge of the shoe—will depend always upon the thickness of the wall, and =should equal the absolute= (real) =thickness of the wall= (Fig. 97). It is evident, therefore, that all nail-holes should not be placed at the same depth (for thickness of the wall, see p. 53).

The =direction= in which the nail-holes should pass through the shoe depends upon the obliquity of the wall. The nail-holes around the toe, as a rule, should incline somewhat inward, the holes at the sides less so, while those at the quarters should be punched straight,—that is, should pass perpendicularly through the shoe.

Both front and hind shoes for army horses in time of war and manœuvres should be so punched that one or two nails may be placed in the posterior half of the shoe (Figs. 111 and 112).

9. =Clips= (Fig. 113) are half-circular, leaf-like ears drawn upward from the outer edge of the shoe. They should be strong and without flaw at the base, and somewhat =higher and thicker= upon hind than upon front shoes. Their height on flat shoes should equal the thickness of the shoe, while on shoes with leather soles, or with toe- and heel-calks they should be somewhat higher.

According to their position we distinguish toe- and side-clips. They secure the shoe against shifting; therefore, as a rule, every shoe should have a toe-clip. A side-clip should always be drawn up on that branch of the shoe which first meets the ground in locomotion.

=A Shoe with Heel-Calks.=—All shoes with heel-calks designed for healthy hoofs should be so made and applied that they will disturb the normal setting down of the foot as little as possible, that the wear of the shoe will take place uniformly, and slipping be diminished. The toe of the shoe must, therefore, be left somewhat thicker than the branches just in front of the heel-calks. Moreover, every front shoe with heel-calks must be relatively long, and be provided with considerable rolling motion at the toe; that is, the shoe should be turned up at the toe, the bending beginning near the inner edge of the web. The three- or four-cornered, somewhat conical heel-calks with rounded corners should not be higher than the thickness of the shoe. With reference to the direction of the ends of the branches, we should see to it that they do not rise excessively, but that they assume as near as possible a horizontal direction in passing back to the heels (see Fig. 115).

=A Shoe with Toe- and Heel-Calks.=—Such a shoe should be of uniform thickness from end to end, and should have a toe-calk and two heel-calks that are somewhat stronger and longer than the heel-calks of a shoe which has no toe-calk. If to a shoe of uniform thickness, on which the heel-calks are somewhat higher than those already described, a piece of steel (Fig. 116, b) of the height of the heel-calks is welded at the toe, we have a shoe with toe- and heel-calks. The toe-calk should never he higher than the heel-calks. There are three principal kinds of toe-calks,—namely:

1. The Sharp Toe-Calk.—A bar of toe-steel of proper width and thickness for the toe-calk is thrust with the shoe into the fire. When the end of the bar is cherry-red in color it is withdrawn, laid across the straight hardy, and cut nearly through at a point a calk-length from the end. Bar and shoe are then brought to a welding heat, the calk quickly and securely welded across the toe of the shoe, the bar wrenched away, the calk gone over again with the hammer, when it is immediately beaten out to a sharp edge from the anterior face, either over the far edge of the anvil, or in a foot-vise. The posterior face of a sharp toe-calk should be perpendicular to the ground-surface of the shoe. Machine-made toe-calks, sharp, half-sharp and blunt, provided with a sharp spud at one or both ends, are in general use. Their use requires two heats, and the sharp calk is blunted in the welding.

2. The Blunt Toe-Calk.—It is a rather long rectangular piece of toe-steel, straight, or curved to conform to the toe of the shoe. The shoe-surface and the ground-surface of the calk are of equal dimensions. It should be welded on in one heat.

3. The Half-Sharp Toe-Calk (Coffin-Lid Toe-Calk).—It resembles the blunt calk, except that the surface of the calk that is applied to the shoe is somewhat broader and longer than the surface that comes in contact with the ground. It is welded on in one heat. The first and third kinds are most suitable for winter.

Since heel-and toe-calks raise the hoof far from the ground and prevent all pressure upon the frog, they diminish the elasticity of the hoof and injure it. They are injurious also to the joints, because they furnish a base of support which is essentially smaller than that afforded by a flat shoe (Fig. 116). However, they are indispensable for heavy draft purposes on slippery roads and in winter. Upon all other roads and in summer they are superfluous, at least upon front hoofs, especially as they do not wholly prevent slipping.

=Special Properties.=—The many different forms of hoofs require a great variety of shoes. Following are the special peculiarities of each of the chief classes of shoes.

1. Shoe for a Regular Hoof.—Outer edge: moderately base-narrow (bevelled under) all around. Distribution and direction of the nail-holes: regular. Length: longer than the hoof by the thickness of the shoe (see Figs. 121 and 122).

2. Shoe for an Acute-Angled Hoof.—Outer edge: strongly base-narrow around the toe, but gradually becoming perpendicular towards the ends of the branches. Punching: regular, except that the nail-holes at the toe must incline inward somewhat more than usual. Length: rather longer than the preceding shoe (see Fig. 123).

3. Shoe for an Upright (stumpy) Hoof.—Outer edge: perpendicular at the toe; but if the hoof is very steep, then base-wide at the toe,—i.e., bevelled downward and outward. Punching: last nail should be placed just beyond the middle of the shoe. Direction of the holes: perpendicular. Length: short; at most, one-eighth of an inch longer than the hoof. In the case of a “bear-foot” (see Fig. 70) the shoe should be long.

4. Shoe for a Base-Wide Hoof.—Outer edge; the outer branch should be moderately base-narrow,—i.e., bevelled downward and inward, the inner branch perpendicular. Punching: upon the outer branch the holes should extend well back, while upon the inner branch they are to be crowded forward towards the toe (see Fig. 117). Length will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof as seen in profile (see 1, 2, and 3).

5. Shoe for a Base-Narrow Hoof.—Outer edge: the outer branch either perpendicular or base-wide, the inner branch strongly base-narrow. Punching: the nail-holes in the outer branch should be crowded towards the toe and, under certain conditions, punched deeper than the wall is thick, on account of the greater width of this branch; in the inner branch the nail-holes are to be distributed back to the quarter and punched light (see Fig. 118). Length will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof. The outer branch should be about one-fourth of an inch longer than the inner.

6. Shoe for a Wide Hoof.—Somewhat wider webbed (more covered) than usual. Outer edge: bevelled under the foot all around (base-narrow). Punching: nail-holes carried back into the posterior half of the shoe (see Fig. 119). Length will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof.

7. Shoe for a Narrow Hoof.—Outer edge: moderately bevelled under the foot at the toe (base-narrow), elsewhere perpendicular. Distribution of the nail-holes: regular. Direction of the nail-holes: perpendicular and towards the quarters, inclining somewhat outward. The holes about the toe incline somewhat inward. Length will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof. Concaving unnecessary (see Fig. 120).

The forms of shoes described in paragraphs 2 to 7 differ from that described in paragraph 1, but are necessary in order to lessen the injurious consequences of irregular loading (unbalancing) of the feet, and of unfavorable bases of support of the body-weight.

G. Choosing the Shoe.

The choice of the shoe for a given horse is not at all difficult after we have carefully considered his weight, the nature of his work, his standing position, gait, the form of his hoofs, and quality of the horn, bearing in mind the general and peculiar properties of shoes. As a rule, we choose a shoe that is longer than the hoof, because the latter grows and carries the shoe forward with it, and because the quarters gradually become lowered by rubbing and wearing away upon the branches of the shoe. The =length= of the shoe is of especial importance. For horses employed for slow, heavy draft purposes the shoe supplied with heel-and toe-calks should extend backward far enough to support the bulbs of the heels. On the contrary, horses used at a trot or gallop, as coach-and saddle-horses, require shorter shoes (see Fig. 124).

The weight of the shoe should be so adjusted to the demands of the horse’s work, the condition of the legs (whether used up with work or not), and the nature of the ground that the shoeing will last at least a month. Hard roads and a heavy, clumsy gait require strong, durable shoes, which, under some conditions, are to be rendered still more durable by welding in steel. For moderate service upon soft roads we should use light shoes. Running horses require unusually thin and narrow shoes of steel (see Figs. 125-128).

H. Shaping and Fitting Shoes. General Considerations.

This is one of the most important parts of horseshoeing. Its object is to so fashion or shape the shoe which has been chosen for a particular hoof that its circumference will exactly correspond to the lower circumference of the previously prepared hoof, and its bearing-surface will fit air-tight to the bearing-surface of the hoof. At this time all defects in the surfaces of hoof and shoe and in the nail-holes must be remedied, the clips drawn up, and the shoe made to fit perfectly. The bearing-surface of the shoe, especially at the ends of the branches, must be kept =horizontal= and smooth, and its width regulated by the width of the bearing-surface of the hoof (see page 99). Perfectly uniform heating is absolutely indispensable in shaping the shoe, because an irregularly heated shoe twists or becomes distorted at the warm places. Every shoe should be straight, and when held before the eye one branch should exactly cover the other. A flat shoe laid upon a level surface should touch at all parts of its ground-surface; the only exception to this is the shoe with a rolled toe (rolling motion), in which the toe is turned upward. A shoe is termed “trough-shaped” when only the inner edge of the web rests upon the flat surface. It is faulty, disturbs the stability of the foot, and shifts the weight of the body too much upon the quarters.

The horizontal bearing-surface is in accordance with nature, because the changes of form of the hoof which take place at the plantar border of the wall, on burdening and unburdening the foot, should not be interfered with. A horizontal bearing-surface best fulfils this requirement.

Shod fore-hoof viewed in profile to show the “roll” at the toe.]

To front shoes we give a =rolled toe= (Fig. 121, rolling motion), by which we mean a more or less pronounced upward turn of the toe of the shoe. Ordinarily, the toe begins to turn up at the middle of the web, and should be elevated about one-half the thickness of the iron. The rolled toe corresponds to the natural wear of front hoofs, facilitates the “breaking over” of the feet, and insures a uniform wear of the shoe (see Fig. 86). The shoe is made moderately hot and placed on the foot with the toe-clip against the wall exactly in front of the point of the frog. The scorched horn should be repeatedly removed with the rasp until a perfect-fitting bed has been made upon the bearing-surface of the hoof. From the bearing-surface of the shoe to the inner border of the web the iron must be free from the sole around its entire circumference. The horn sole should not be burnt, because the velvety tissue of the sole lies immediately above it. In the region of the nail-holes the outer borders of shoe and wall should correspond. =The nail-holes must under all conditions cover the white line.= From the last nail-hale back to the ends of the branches, for hoofs of the regular standing position of the limbs, the shoe should gradually widen until it projects at each quarter from a sixteenth to an eighth of an inch beyond the edge of the wall. The posterior half of the shoe should, therefore, be somewhat wider than the hoof. The effect of this will be to prolong the usefulness of the shoes. With respect to the width of the branches, an exception arises in the case of hind shoes, in which the inner branch, with few exceptions, should closely follow the border of the wall; this will prevent interfering and tearing off the shoe by the opposite foot.

Between the ends of the branches and the frog there should be enough room, with few exceptions, to pass a foot-pick.

In order to judge of the width of a shoe which has been fitted to the hoof, it is of advantage to seize the hoof in the left hand and, extending it towards the ground, to observe from behind and above the outer border of the shoe and the surfaces of the wall.

Furthermore, the most important rule is that the shoe should always have the form of the foot, so long as the form of the hoof remains unaltered. In all hoofs that have already undergone change of form we must strive to give the shoe that form which the hoof had before it underwent change. Such treatment will not only do the hoof no injury, but, on the contrary, is of advantage to it, as it is well known that in time the hoof will acquire the form of the shoe.

Shaping and Fitting Shoes. Special Considerations.

(a) A shoe for a hoof of the regular form fits properly when the outer border of the shoe in the region of the nail-holes closely follows the outer edge of the wall, but from the last nail-hole to the end of each branch extends beyond the wall from a sixteenth to an eighth of an inch, the shoe is straight, lies firmly and air-tight upon the bearing-surface of the hoof, the nail-holes fall exactly upon the white line, and there is sufficient space between the frog and the branches of the shoe for the passage of a foot-pick. The branches must be of equal length.

While in fitting a shoe to a hoof of regular form we need pay attention only to the form of the hoof, it is very different when we come to shape and fit shoes to hoofs of irregular forms. In these cases we must consider not only the form of the hoof, but the position of the limbs and the distribution of weight in the hoof, because =where the most weight falls the surface of support of the foot must be widened, and where least weight falls= (=on the opposite side=) =the surface of support must be narrowed=. In this manner the improper distribution of weight within the hoof (an unbalanced foot) is regulated,—that is, is evenly distributed over the surface of support. The manner in which this is accomplished in the various forms of hoofs is as follows:

(b) An acute-angled hoof requires the shoe described in paragraph 2, page 114. The branches must be long, because more of the weight falls in the posterior half of the foot, and long branches extend the surface of support backward, while the surface of support in front is to be diminished by making the toe of the shoe base-narrow, either by turning it up or by bevelling it in under the foot. A shoe for an acute-angled hoof fits when it is otherwise related to the hoof as is described in paragraph a, above.

(c) An upright or stumpy hoof presents exactly reverse conditions with respect to the distribution of weight within the hoof, and is treated in an exactly opposite manner. The surface of support should be increased at the toe and diminished at the quarters. This is accomplished by a shoe possessing the peculiarities described in paragraph 3, page 114, whose nail-holes are directed either straight or slightly outward.

(d) A base-wide hoof requires the surface of support to be widened upon the inner side of the foot and narrowed upon the outer side, because the inner half of the foot hears the more weight. A shoe having the peculiarities described in paragraph 4, page 114, accomplishes this end.

(e) The base-narrow hoof is just the reverse of the preceding, and requires a shoe whose peculiarities are described in paragraph 5, page 114. While in the normal standing position of the limbs, viewed from in front, the ends of the branches of the shoe should be equally distant from the middle of the median lacuna of the frog, this is not so in the base-wide and base-narrow positions. In the base-wide position the outer and in the base-narrow position the inner branch should be somewhat farther from the median lacuna than the branch of the opposite side.

The three principal forms of hoofs shod with flat shoes.]

(f) The wide hoof has too large a surface of support, and, therefore, the shoe designed for it should possess the peculiarities enumerated in paragraph 6, page 115.

(g) The narrow hoof has already too narrow a base of support, and must not be made smaller; therefore, the shoe should not have a base-narrow but a perpendicular outer border, as described in paragraph 7, page 115.

Shoeing Saddlers and Hunters.

The shoes for saddlers (Park Hacks) should be light, short, and fitted snug to prevent forging, interfering and pulling of the shoes. The hoof-surface should cover the wall, white line and at least one-fourth of an inch of the margin of the sole. An average width of one inch is desirable. Both front and hind shoes should be fullered and concaved on the ground-surface (convex iron). =The Front Shoe=:—Length, should not project beyond the buttress more than one-eighth of an inch. Width, an inch at the middle on the branches, somewhat more at the toe, and less at the ends of the branches. Bevelling, outer border, base-narrow all around. The ends of the branches, and the heel-calks, in case they are used, are bevelled strongly downward and forward under the foot. The toe is rolled from the inner edge of the web, and provided with a strong central clip. Six nails are sufficient (see Fig. 124).

A right front shoe with forging calks; suitable for a saddle-horse, or hunter (convex iron).]

=The Hind Shoe=:—Length, the shoe may project from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch behind the buttresses. The toe should be well rounded and somewhat blunt so that the horn of the toe will project beyond the shoe an amount equal to one-half the thickness of the wall. Width, somewhat less than the front shoe. The branches are of equal thickness, and should carry heel-calks whose height equals the thickness of the shoe. To guard against interfering the inside calk may be omitted and the inner branch thickened, fitted snug and bevelled strongly base-narrow. Clips are to be placed at inner and outer toes. Seven nails are sufficient.

The shoes for hunters do not differ materially from those suitable for Park Hacks. The hunter’s shoes are somewhat lighter, and to guard against injury to the feet by over-reaching and interfering, and against the shoes being pulled by stiff mire and by treading, the shoes must represent merely a prolongation of the hoofs, i.e., must be no longer and no wider than the hoofs themselves. =The front shoe= of narrow, convex iron is rolled at the toe and has a central toe-clip. Forging heel-calks are advisable.

=The hind shoe= is set back at the toe, carries inner and outer toe clips, an outer heel-calk and an inner interfering branch. Seven nails.

Shoeing Runners.

Racing plates are intended solely to prevent excessive wear and breaking away of the wall, and to insure a secure foothold upon the ground. The shoes are made as light as possible, but they must not be so narrow and thin that they will bend or break. They are therefore made of steel, wide enough to cover the bearing-surface of the wall, white line, and an eighth of an inch of the sole. The ground-surface is divided into two sharp edge’s by a deep, clean, fullering continued entirely around the shoe. heel-calks are of no advantage. Front and hind shoes carry six nails. The last nails are well back in the quarters to prevent the spreading or bending of the light shoe. Front shoes are provided with central toe-clips; hind shoes carry inner and outer toe-clips and are set slightly under at the toe (see Figs. 125, 126, 127, 128). An average weight running plate for a medium-sized hoof is three to four ounces.

Shoeing Trotters and Pacers.

The shoes worn while the trotter or pacer is in training are somewhat heavier than those worn while racing. Training shoes will average 40 ounces to the set, while trotting and pacing plates weigh from 16 to 28 ounces to the set. Of the six fastest trotters during the last year (1912) the average weight of the front shoes was 6⅚ ounces, of the hind shoes 4 ounces. Of the seven swiftest pacers of the same year the front shoes averaged 5½ ounces, and the hind shoes 3⅝ ounces. In short, extreme speed at running, pacing or trotting demands as light a shoe as can be made, which will at the same time furnish a bearing for wall, white line and a narrow rim of the sole.

In style of shoes there is no marked difference between trotters and pacers—except in the hind shoes of pacers that cross-fire (see “cross-firing,” p. 140). Open shoes predominate. Bar-shoes are used, not to give frog pressure, but to stiffen and prevent spreading of the shoe, when after a few days’ wear it becomes thin at the toe. The average trotting and pacing plate is so thin that it would be weakened by fullering, so most of them are stamped (punched). Six nails are sufficient. Clips are seldom needed.

Pacers usually require a low circular grab or “rim” at the toe. This is set flush with the outer border, is about one-eighth of an inch high and is brazed on. Trotting plates are usually without toe-calks, though many are fullered across the toe (corrugated) to furnish a grip upon the ground.

On both trotting and pacing shoes the heel-calks should be low and sharp and should run straight forward so as not to retard the forward glide of the foot as it is set to earth heel first. The heel-calk serves chiefly to prevent the lateral twist of the foot as the horse takes the sharp turns of the track.

Freak shoes, toe-weights, side-weights, excessive length of hoof or toe, and other unscientific appliances and methods of shoeing speed horses are being gradually eliminated, and today the fastest are dressed and shod in accordance with the principles enunciated in this book.

Fitting Shoes to Heavy Draft-Horses.

What has been previously said concerning shoeing holds good here; however, the conditions of shoeing are somewhat different in heavy horses, and particularly with respect to hoofs which, without being clearly diseased, have been injured by shoeing. The entire operation requires more circumspection, because it is more difficult. In many cases one will find that the width that has been advised for the outer branch of the shoe at the quarter is not sufficient. Indeed, if a horse has wry feet, and there is unequal distribution of weight within the hoof, and we attempt in shoeing it to follow to the letter the directions given on preceding pages, we would be apt to favor the perpetuation of the defect. In such cases the slant of the wall at the quarters is of the greatest practical value to us in estimating the proper width for the shoe at this point.

When uniform setting down of the hoof and uniform wear of the shoe are desired, every point in the coronary band in the posterior half of the foot must receive support by the shoe. This applies particularly to the outer halves of hoofs that are extremely base-narrow. If, for example, the coronet of the outer quarter projects beyond the plantar border of the quarter, the outer branch of the shoe from the last nail-hole back must be kept so wide (full) that an imaginary perpendicular line dropped from the coronary band will just touch the outer border of the shoe. The inner branch, on the contrary, should follow the edge of the wall as closely as possible. Furthermore, the new shoe should be given more curve,—that is, made wider and fitted more full where the old shoe shows greatest wear. The principal thought should be to set the shoe, which should always be regarded as the base of support of the hoof, farther towards the more strongly worn side. Such a practice renders superfluous the wide-spread and popular custom of bending outward the outer quarter and heel-calk of hind shoes. From the manner in which a horse travels and the wear of the old shoe, we estimate the distance that the branches of the shoe should be set from the middle line of the hoof. If in following out this plan the bearing-surface of the outer quarter of the wall is not completely covered, the quarter will be pinched and squeezed inward; this should be prevented by a broader branch punched so deeply that the holes will fall upon the white line (Fig. 129).

When the shoer has satisfied himself that the shoe fulfils every requirement and fits perfectly, it is to be cooled, the holes opened with an oiled pritchel, and the shoe brightened with a file. In filing, all sharp edges should be removed. If a shoe is to be filed upon the outer border, to give it a neater appearance, the filing should be done lengthways of the shoe, and not crossways; of course, the shoe must not be bent by being improperly clamped in the vise.

It indicates much greater skill in making and fitting shoes when they look clean and finished with little or no filing.

In the preceding remarks I have insisted upon a horizontal bearing-surface for all shoes, with the single exception of shoes provided with the rolled toe (rolling motion). As far as I can judge from the literature of shoeing, and from what I have seen with my own eyes in many countries, this is the most wide-spread practice. In Germany, on the other hand, there is another method, followed in the military shoeing shops, which consists in placing the bearing-surface of the shoe as nearly as possible at right angles to the slant of the wall. According to this method the bearing-surface of the shoe, depending upon the direction of the wall (viewed from in front, from behind, and from the side), should incline more or less, now backward, now inward, now horizontal, and now outward. Shoes for wide hoofs are given a bearing-surface which inclines inward, while for narrow hoofs the shoes have a horizontal bearing-surface. Shoes for wry hoofs have a bearing-surface which inclines downward and inward for the slanting wall, and for the steeper wall a horizontal bearing-surface, which towards the end of the branch may incline slightly downward and outward. Besides, the bearing-surface of the ends of the branches, viewed from the side, has a backward and downward inclination. This method is practicable =only in part=.

I. Nailing the Shoe.

This is that act of horseshoeing by which the shoe is fastened to the hoof by special nails called hoof-nails or horseshoe-nails, which are driven through the shoe and horny wall.

At present there are hand-made and machine-made horseshoe-nails. Both kinds should be made of the best wrought iron. The nails must be slender, wedge-shaped, and twice as wide as they are thick. Thickness and length must be in proper relation to each other. We should never choose a nail which is longer than is absolutely necessary to hold the shoe; six to eight sizes are sufficient for all purposes.

The rough nails (hand-made), before being used, must undergo a special shaping to prepare them to pass through the wall easily and in the desired direction. This preparation is called shaping and bevelling. In doing this we should see to it that the nails are made smooth, and even, but are not hammered harder than is absolutely necessary, because the lighter one can hammer the nails the better they will be.

Furthermore, we must give the nail that form which will insure its passing through the horn straight and not in a curve; with this object in view, the nail is to be slightly curved so that the side which is turned towards the frog in driving (inside) will be a little concave, the opposite side convex (Figs. 130, 3, and 131, No. 10), since it is known that a straight nail always passes through the horn in a curve, and not only does not long remain tight, but is quite likely to press upon and injure the soft tissues of the foot. (See also, Nailing.)

At the point of the nail the bevel is to be so placed that it will form a short one-sided wedge with the slanting side directed =from within to without= (Figs. 130, 3, and 131, d). A short bevel is suitable for nails that are to be driven low, while a long bevel makes it possible to drive them high. The bevel should never form a hook; it must always be straight, should be sharp but not thin, and under no conditions incomplete (defective).

Machine-made nails, smooth, polished, bevelled, and ready for use, are, for many reasons, to be preferred to hand-made nails, though the latter are rather tougher (see Fig. 131).

Before the shoe is nailed on it should be cooled and again carefully examined by a competent shoer, who should then place it upon the hoof, where it should be critically observed to see whether it really fulfils every requirement of a properly-fitting shoe. Afterwards, the least fault or defect must be remedied, and then the work of nailing it begins. By nailing, the shoe is firmly and durably fastened to the hoof, in doing which the horn of the wall is spared so far as possible, the elasticity of the hoof borne always in mind, and wounding of the pododerm entirely avoided. =The nails must in all cases penetrate the white line= and pass through the wall in such a straight direction that they will appear neither too high nor too low upon its outer surface. In the first case there is considerable danger of pricking or close-nailing, and in the latter the nail-holes will tear out easily when the nails are being clinched.

Driving hammer.]

In driving a nail, it should be held in the fingers as long as possible in the direction in which it is desired that it shall pass through the horn. A nail should be driven cautiously, with attention to its sinking and sound, and yet with enough force so that at each stroke it will penetrate from one-fifth to one-fourth of an inch. The power required at each stroke will depend upon the hardness of the horn and the size of the nail. Fearless driving and timorous tapping should not be allowed.

Nails, which at a depth of five-eighths of an inch are still going soft, or which bend and give a dull sound, or cause pain, should be immediately withdrawn.

According to the size of the horse and his hoofs the nails should be driven from five-eighths to an inch and five-eighths high, and as even as possible. As soon as a nail is driven its point should be =immediately= bent down towards the shoe in order to prevent injuries. The heads of all the nails should then be gone over with a hammer and driven down solidly into the nail-holes, the hoof being meanwhile supported in the left hand. Pincers are then held under the bent nails and they are more sharply bent by light blows upon the nail-heads. The points of the nails are now nipped off near the hoof, the horn which has been thrown out just below the clinches by bending the nails down is removed with rasp or gouge, and the ends of the nails bent down still more, but not quite flush with the wall. This operation is called “clinching.” A clinching-block or a pair of ordinary blacksmith’s pincers is then placed under the end of the nail, now called a clinch, and by light blows (in doing this the nail must not bend within the wall) upon the head the clinch is turned closer to the surface of the wall; finally, with the front edge of the nail-hammer the clinch is hammered down flush with the wall. On the inner half of the wall the clinches should not be felt on stroking the wall with the fingers. The small amount of horn that projects beyond the shoe around the toe may be carefully rasped away in the direction in which the wall slants, but never higher than the clinches; finally, the sharp lower edge of the wall is to be removed by carrying the corner of the rasp around between the shoe and the horn.

A clinch is sufficiently long when it equals the width of the nail at that point.

It is of advantage to use a shoeing-bock or foot-stool in clinching the nails on the front hoofs. The hind hoofs may be clinched in the hands. Then the horse should be led out and again moved in order to see whether or not the new shoeing has actually accomplished what was desired. Finally, the entire hoof should be given a thin layer of hoof-salve.

K. Horseshoes More or Less Deficient in the Desirable Qualities Described on Pages 107-116.

Machine Shoes.

1. Machine Shoes of Wrought Iron.—They are half-finished and finished. Though machine shoes with few exceptions show no distinction between front and hind, or left and right, with correct punching for these different feet, but usually present one form in different sizes, yet, unfortunately, they are in high favor with horseshoers, because they may be used for both summer and winter and for bar-shoes.

A machine-made (drop-forged) front shoe, ground-surface.]

For these reasons we cannot approve of machine shoes.

2. Finished Cast Shoes.—They are of four kinds,—ordinary cast shoes, cast shoes with rope buffer, cast shoes with fiber buffer, and cast shoes fenestrated to hold a rubber buffer. Ordinary cast shoes of correct form and proper punching designed by Grossbauer, of Vienna, are sold by Hannes’ Sons, of that city.

Machine-made (drop-forged) multi-calk fore shoe. A, ground-surface; B, hoof-surface; C, profile.]

Machine-made (drop-forged) multi-calk hind shoe. A, ground-surface; B, hoof-surface; C, profile.]

Rope Shoes.—These shoes have a groove on the ground-surface, in which rests a tarred rope, which greatly diminishes slipping on smooth pavement. For this reason alone they are extensively used in the large cities of Germany. Since the open rope shoe, when half worn out, will warp, the bar rope shoe is more satisfactory and more extensively used (Figs. 141-144).

Before fitting the shoe the rope must be removed. After the nails are driven it is laid in the groove and hammered into place. Rope shoes can seldom be fitted properly to hoofs other than those which are healthy and of regular shape.

Fiber Shoes.—These have a groove on the ground-surface into which layers of linen fiber belting have been tightly pressed. The fiber cannot be removed, and therefore the shoes cannot be heated, but must be fitted cold. The nail-holes are placed between the fiber and the outer border of the shoe, and are punched too light. The bearing surface of the shoe is unsupported, so that when the shoe is half worn out, it warps. There is no distinction between rights and lefts.

Rubber shoes have all the defects of fiber shoes, and one more. The hoof-surface is covered with canvas, which under normal and acute-angled hoofs wears through under the quarters and leads to loosening of the last nails.

L. Rubber Pads.

The increasing use of asphalt, tarvia and other hard, smooth and slippery materials for surfacing city streets and country highways has not only made travelling in flat and even in calked shoes precarious, but has aggravated all those injuries produced by concussion.

To prevent slipping and the injurious effects of concussion a great many shoes have been devised, in which are incorporated such materials as hemp rope, linen fibre, papier maché, cork, wood, bast, felt and rubber, but all fail in greater or lesser degree to meet practical requirements.

Rubber, though the most expensive of these materials, is the most resilient and takes the best grip on smooth pavement. A pad of rubber, wide enough to cover the branches of the frog alone, or the branches of the frog and the buttresses of the hoof, firmly cemented to a leather sole, constitutes the modern rubber pad (Figs. 145, 146, 147).

The frog- and buttress-pad used with a short shoe is to be preferred to the earlier frog pad which takes a full shoe.

The advantages of rubber pads are:

1. They prevent slipping upon asphalt and other smooth, dry surfaces.

2. They diminish concussion, and are valuable in the prevention and treatment of sore heels, dry and moist corns, bruised sole, and incipient side-bone.

3. They give frog pressure, develop the frog and tend to prevent contraction of the quarters and those lesions which may follow contraction, as corns, cracks of bars and quarters, laminitis of the quarters and thrush.

A rubber pad should not be used:

1. In contraction of one or both quarters, when the frog is too much shrunken to bear upon the pad.

2. In lameness from well developed side-bones.

3. In navicular bursitis (“navicular disease”).

4. In thrush, or canker of frog or sole.

Rubber pads, light, medium and heavy, are made in all sizes and are suitable for all classes of horses, from the light roadster to the heavy draft type. The short shoe with which they are used reaches the middle of the quarters. The pad surface (upper surface) of the ends of the branches should be bevelled to conform to the pad, and to hold it firmly against the frog and buttresses. The thickness of the shoe should equal two-thirds the thickness of the pad, so that when fitted one-third of the thickness of the pad shall project below the ground-surface of the shoe. The shoe should be provided with a strong toe-clip. With the heavy, thick pad of a draft-horse a low toe-calk may be used, but heel-calks should never be put on a short shoe. Pads are seldom necessary on the hind feet.