CHAPTER VIII

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON THE IMPORTANCE AND INFLUENCE OF GREEK ECONOMICS

Our conclusions as to the importance and influence of Greek economic thought have been fully presented in the previous discussion. A brief summary of the results, however, may be of advantage now, at the close of our survey. As seen above, despite the fact that Greek thought in this field was incidental to moral and political speculation, and despite a certain philosophic prejudice and limited economic vision, the contribution is by no means merely negative. We have seen that it included a recognition by one or more Greek thinkers of such important principles as the following: that society finds its origin in mutual need, and in the natural development of clan and family, not in the artificial social contract; that the state is a great business association, in which about the same economic laws apply as in private economy; that the final goal of economics is not property but human welfare; that the criteria of economic value are intrinsic utility, economic demand, and cost of production; that wealth must possess the quality of storableness; that true wealth consists only of commodities that minister to human welfare; that the three factors in production are land, labor and capital; that money originated in necessary exchange; that it serves as a medium of exchange, a standard of value, and a ticket of deferred payments; that it should possess intrinsic value, which is more stable than that of other commodities; that it should not be confused with wealth, but should be understood in its true function as representative wealth; that credit must play an exceedingly important part in business operations as representative capital; that agriculture is the basal industry, on which all others must depend; that the division of labor is the fundamental principle at the foundation of all exchange; that it results in certain important economic advantages, and that its extensive application depends upon large commercial development; that reciprocity is the fundamental principle in exchange, as also in the social structure; that exchange performs a legitimate social function in creating time and place values; that industrial expansion is limited by a law of diminishing returns; that the primary purpose of exchange should not be profit, but satisfaction of economic need; that commerce merely for its own sake does not necessarily increase the national store, but may produce only economic inequalities; that extremes of wealth and poverty cause industrial inefficiency, social strife, and crime; that excessive individual wealth is not usually compatible with just acquisition or just expenditure; that it also necessarily implies corresponding extremes of poverty; that the commercial spirit in nations is the chief cause of international differences; that the goal of economics is consumption rather than production, and that foolish consumption results in great economic waste; that all economic problems are moral problems; that private property is not a natural right, but a gift of society, and therefore that society may properly control its activities; that there is a certain unity in human nature, which is opposed to the doctrine of natural slavery; that the individual should have opportunity for personal development in accord with his capacities, aside from the mere struggle for physical existence; that true economic equality does not demand equal shares for all, but shares proportioned to capacities and services; and that gifts of charity merely for consumption are fruitful causes of poverty and indolence.

Besides the recognition of such principles, we have seen that many practical suggestions for the amelioration of economic and social conditions, which are being seriously presented today, were first proposed by Greek thinkers. Measures for the divorce of government from big business, state control of natural monopolies, conservation of natural resources, state supervision of trade and commerce, including regulation of prices and rates, publicity in business, pure food laws, and the socialization of industry and its products were all first proposed by Greeks. On the other hand, we have seen that practically all the modern stock arguments against socialism were long ago presented by Aristotle, and that the ideal of the Greek socialist was not primarily materialistic and selfish, as the modern, but moral and social.

Such a list of positive economic principles and practical suggestions should surely give the Greeks some claim to recognition in the field of economic thought. But they should be judged primarily, not by their positive contribution to economic theory or by the practical nature of their suggestions for legislation, but rather by the extent to which they realized the existence of the great economic and social problems, which are still crying for a solution. From this standpoint, we have seen that Plato and Aristotle especially reveal remarkable economic insight. Moreover, there still remains the outstanding fact that the Greeks were the forerunners of the moral, humanitarian, and social emphasis in present-day economy. This alone should give to them a distinct place in the evolution of economic thought, and should make it impossible for Souchon to conclude: “Ces mépris [of G. B. Say] sont pour nous apparaître plus justifiés que les admirations de Roscher.”

The influence of Greek thought upon later economic theory, however, seems not to have been very direct or extensive, probably owing to the incidental nature of their speculation. To be sure, mediaeval economic thought presents, in many respects, an unbroken continuity with the Greek. In their emphasis on the moral, in their doctrines on usury, just price, importance of agriculture, exchange for profit, and in their general conservative attitude toward money and commercial development, mediaeval thinkers are very similar to the Socratics. Doubtless much of this similarity may be traced to the direct influence of Aristotle, as is especially evident in the work of Thomas Aquinas and Nicholas Oresme. To a considerable extent, however, the economic ideas of the Middle Ages were a direct outgrowth of the economic and religious conditions under which the writers lived. In the following centuries, some Greek influence may be traced in Adam Smith, in the physiocrats, in utopian writers such as More, and in eighteenth-century thinkers like Rousseau.

It is usually asserted that the economic thought of the past century has been practically unaffected by Greek ideas. But our previous discussion has clearly shown that Plato and Xenophon, at least, dominated the economic thinking of Ruskin. If further evidence is needed, it is necessary only to turn to the names of Greek thinkers in the index to the monumental new edition of his works, which we have frequently cited above. He frankly and enthusiastically presents himself as an apostle of a “Greek theory of economics.” But despite some of his utopian and extravagant ideas, he is being ever more recognized by authorities in economics as having been one of the chief factors in the development of political economy to its present moral and humanitarian emphasis. His repudiation of the abstract “economic man,” his insistence upon human, moral, and social ideals in economics, his attempt to broaden the definition of economic value and wealth by emphasizing true utility, his constant stress upon proper consumption rather than upon production, his demand that all have opportunity up to their capacity, his opposition to the laissez-faire policy in economics and politics, his emphasis upon right education, all have borne rich and abiding fruit in the last few decades, and these are all distinctively Greek ideas, as we have seen above. Thus indirectly, through Ruskin, Greek economic thought has exerted a potent influence upon the evolution of nineteenth-century economics, and thus there is much truth in the words of Wagner, as quoted by Oncken, not merely for German, but for all modern economy: “Es ist im Grunde uralter wahrhaft classischer Boden, auf den jetzt die deutsche ökonomische und soziale Theorie und Praxis sich bewusst wieder stellen.” Souchon’s characterization of Greek economy as “morale étatisme” could well be applied to much in the economic thought of today.

Footnote 1060:

Op. cit., p. 195; Roscher is, of course, extreme in his appreciation.

Footnote 1061:

Cf. Brants, Les théories écon. au XIII et XIV siècle; Espinas, Histoire des doctrines économiques, pp. 72 ff.; Haney, op. cit., pp. 69 ff.

Footnote 1062:

In his De origine, natura, jure, et mutationibus monetarum (fourteenth century). On their dependence upon Aristotle, cf. Zmavc, Zeitschr. f. d. gesammt. Staatswiss., 1902, pp. 54 and 77 f.; and Archiv f. d. Gesch. der Phil., 1899, 407 ff.

Footnote 1063:

Cf. Souchon, pp. 199 f., who observes that the Greek moral goal was perfection of the individual through the state, while that of the Middle Ages was individual salvation to another world.

Footnote 1064:

Cf. Oncken, op. cit., p. 38.

Footnote 1065:

He calls Plato the “master of economy” (Fors Clav. [Vol. XXVIII, 717]); cf. also Vol. XXXVIII, 112 on his Platonic discipleship. He says (Arrows of the Chace, Vol. XXXIV, 547): “The economy I teach is Xenophon’s”; cf. also Vol. XXXVII, 550, Letter to Professor Blackie, II: “My own political economy is literally only the expansion and explanation of Xenophon’s.” Cf. Vol. XXXI, Intro., pp. xv ff.; Vol. XVII, pp. xlix and 18; cf. his preface to his translation of the Economicus; cf. also E. Barker, Pol. Thought in England from Herbert Spencer to the Present Day (“Home University Library”), pp. 191-96, who emphasizes this Greek influence. Cf. above, p. 23, n. 5; 64, n. 3.

Footnote 1066:

Barker, cited above, in n. 2, also emphasizes this fact. Cf. the edition of Ruskin above cited, Introduction to Vol. XVII, an excellent discussion of Ruskin’s economic ideas and their influence, for a bibliography (p. cxii) and citations from many modern economists on the subject; e.g., the notable address in 1885, in recognition of his work, signed by a number of leading English economists; the striking citations from Ingram; from Stimson (Quarterly Journal of Economics, II , 445), that the future political economy will make its bricks for building “from Ruskin’s earth rather than from Ricardo’s straw”; from the late regius professor of modern history at Oxford, “The political economy of today is the political economy of John Ruskin, and not that of John Bright or even of John Stewart Mill.”

Footnote 1067:

P. 46, n. 3 (Wagner, Die Akad. Nat.-oek. und der Socialismus, 1895).

Footnote 1068:

Op. cit., p. 201.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following bibliography includes: (a) histories of economic thought; almost all of these have only a cursory chapter on Greek theory, and several of them deal largely with economic conditions; (b) histories of socialism and social theory, to which the foregoing statement applies to a large extent; (c) chapters in works on different phases of Greek economic history; (d) other works of a more general type, which deal more or less extensively with Greek economic or social ideas; (e) articles and dissertations; (f) editions of Greek authors that are of special interest for our subject. It is manifestly impossible to name many of these latter, and we shall content ourselves with the mention of a few that have proved especially helpful. The works are listed in alphabetical order, for greater convenience in reference, and those of chief interest are starred.

Adam, James (The Republic of Plato, 1902).

Adler, G. Geschichte des Socialismus und Kommunismus von Plato bis zur Gegenwart (1899), pp. 6-52. On Greek.

Alesio. “Alcune riflessioni intorno ai concetti del valore nell’antichità classica,” Archivio Giuridico, 1889.

Ashley, W. J. “Aristotle’s Doctrine of Barter,” Quarterly Journal of Economy, 1895. An interpretation of Ar. Pol. i. 1258b27 ff.

Barker, E. Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle (1906), pp. 357-404.*

Blanqui, M. Histoire de l’économie politique en Europe (1842; 4th ed., 1860), I, 33-92. Somewhat indiscriminate in appreciation of Greek thinkers.

Bonar. Philosophy and Political Economy (1893).*

Brants, V. Xenophon Economiste, reprint from Revue Catholique de Louvain, 1881.*

Bussy, M. Histoire et Réfutation du Socialisme depuis l’antiquité, jusqu’à nos jours (1859). Superficial and prejudiced.

Cossa, L. Histoire des doctrines économiques (1899) (trans. from the Italian of 1876), pp. 144-50.*

——. “Di alcuni studii storici sulle teorie economiche dei Greci,” Saggi di Economia Politica, 1878, pp. 3-14.

De Sam-Cognazzi. Analisi dell economia publica e privata degli antichi (1830).

Du Mesnill-Marigny. Histoire de l’économie politique des anciens peuples (1878, 3 vols.). Superficial.

De Villeneuve-Bargemont. Histoire de l’économie politique (Paris, 1841, 2d ed.), I. Chiefly on the facts.

Dietzel. “Beiträge zur Geschichte des Socialismus und des Kommunismus,” Zeitschrift für Literatur und Geschichte der Staatswissenschaften, I (1893), 373 ff.*

Döring, A. Die Lehre des Socrates als soziales Reform-System (1895).

DuBois, A. Précis de l’histoire des doctrines économiques dans leurs rapports avec les faits et avec les institutions (1903), pp. 23-53. A good partial bibliography.*

Dühring, E. Kritische Geschichte der Nationalökonomie und des Socialismus (3d ed., 1879), pp. 19-25.

Dunning, W. A. Political Theories Ancient and Mediaeval (New York, 1913). Economic material only incidental.

Eisenhart, H. Geschichte der Nationalökonomie (2d ed., 1891). Mostly on economic history.

Espinas. Histoire des doctrines économiques (1891), chap, i.*

——. “L’art économique dans Platon,” Revue des Etudes Grecques, XXVI (1914), 105-29, 36-65.*

Ferrara, J. “L’economica politica degli antichi,” Journal de Statis. de Palerme, 1836.

Fontpertuis, F. de. “Filiation des ideés économiques, dans l’antiquité,” Journal des écon., September, 1871 ff.*

Francotte, H. L’Industrie dans la Grèce ancienne (Brussels, 1900). Sections on Greek theories of labor and socialism.*

Glaser. “De Aristotelis doctrina de divitiis” (dissertation, 1850), Jahrb. für Gesellschafts- und Staatswissenschaft, 1865.

Göttling. De Notione servitutis apud Aristotelem (dissertation, Jena, 1821).

Grote, G. Plato (4 vols.).

——. Aristotle (2 vols.).

Guiraud, P. La main-d’œuvre industrielle dans l’ancienne Grèce (1900), pp. 36-50. On theory.*

——. La propriété foncière en Grèce jusqu’à la conqûete Romaine (1893), pp. 573-612. On socialistic ideas.*

——. Etudes économiques sur l’antiquité (1905), chap. i. On the importance of economic questions in Greece.*

Hagen. Observationum oeconomico politicarum in Aeschinis dialogum qui Eryxias inscribitur (dissertation, 1822).

Haney, L. W. History of Economic Thought (1911), pp. 39-52.*

Heidel, W. A. Pseudo-Platonica (dissertation, Chicago, 1896), pp. 59-61. On Eryxias.

Herzog, C. “Communismus und Socialismus in Alterthum,” Beilage zur allgemeine Zeitung, 1894, No. 166. Conservative on the influence of socialism in the ancient world.

Hildebrand, B. Xenophontis et Aristot. de oeconomia publico doctrinae illustrantur (dissertation, Marburg, 1845). Part on Aristotle not published.

Hoderman, M. “Quaestionum oeconomicarum specimen,” (dissertation, Berlin, 1896), Berlin Studien für class. Philol. und Arch., XVI, No. 4. On the so-called Economica.

Ingram, J. K. History of Political Economy (1907), pp. 7-26.*

Jowett and Campbell. Republic of Plato (3 vols., 1894).

Kaulla, R. Die geschichtliche Entwickelung der modernen Werttheorien (1906), pp. 3 f. On Aristotle.

Kautsky, K. Die Geschichte des Socialismus in Einzeldarstellungen (1897), I, 1.

Kautz. Theorie und Geschichte der national Oekonomie (Wien, 2d ed., 1860), pp. 102-43.*

Knies, Karl. Die politische Economie vom geschichtlichen Standpunkt (1883). Of but slight interest for ancient theory.

Loos, I. A. “Studies in the Politics of Aristotle and the Republic of Plato,” Bull. of the University of Iowa, 1899.

Mabille. “Le communisme et le féminisme à Athènes.” Mémoires de l’académie de Dijon, 4 série, t. 7, pp. 317 ff. (Paris, 1900).

Martiis, S. de. Cognetti (Socialismo antico, Turin, 1899).*

Menger, Karl. Art. “Geld,” Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaft (2d ed.), IV, 82 ff.

Newman. The Politics of Aristotle (Oxford, 1877, 4 vols.).*

Oncken, A. Geschichte der Nationalökonomie (1902), I, 27-49.

Palgrave’s Dictionary. Art. “Aristotle.” This and the above-named article on “Geld” will serve as sufficient notice of the several Dictionaries of Political Economy, to which other references might be made.

Platon, G. “Le socialisme en Grèce,” Devenir Social., January, 1897 ff.

Poehlmann, R. Geschichte des antiken Socialismus und Kommunismus (München, 1893-1901, 2 vols.; 2d ed., 1912, Geschichte der sozialen Frage und des Socialismus in der antiken Welt). A thorough treatment of Greek socialistic tendencies both in theory and in practice, though it exaggerates the development of capitalism in Greece, and draws analogies too freely between ancient and modern socialism. Our citations are from the second edition.*

——. “Die Anfänge des Sozialismus in Europa,” Sybel’s Hist. Zeitschrift, Bd. 79, H. 3, pp. 385-451.

Rambaud, J. Histoire des Doctrines économiques (Paris, 1902).

Regnier, M. L’économie politique et rurale des Grecs.

Robin, L. “Platon et la science sociale,” Revue de metaphysique et de morale, March, 1913 (reprint by Armand Colin, Paris).*

Roscher. “Ueber das Verhältniss der national Oekonomik[** Nationalökonomie] zum klassischen Alterthume,” Ansichten der Volkswirtschaft, I (1878), 1-50.*

Roscher. De doctrinae oeconomico politicae apud Graecos primordiis (Leipzig, 1866).

Salvio, G. Salomo. Il concetto della schiavitu secundo Aristotile (Rome, 1881).

——. Communismo nella Grecia antiqua (Padua, 1883).

Schneider. Die staatswirtschaftlichen Lehren des Aristotles (dissertation, Neu Puppin, 1873).

Schrohl, O. De Eryxias qui fertur Platonis (dissertation, 1901). Chiefly on the authorship of the Eryxias.

Schulte, J. Quomodo Plato in legibus publico Atheniensium instituta respexerit (dissertation, 1907).

Sewall, H. “Theory of Value before Adam Smith,” Publication of American Economic Association, II, Part 3. Four pages on Aristotle.

Shorey, Paul (“Plato’s Laws,” Classical Philology, October, 1914).

Simey, Miss E. “Economic Theory among the Greeks and Romans,” Economic Review, October, 1900.

Souchon, A. Les Théories économiques dans la Grèce antique (1898; a 2d ed. in 1906, but slightly changed).*

Stein, Ludwig. Das erste Auftauschen der sozialen Frage bei den Griechen (dissertation, Bern, 1896).

——. Die soziale Frage im Lichte der Philosophie (Stuttgart, 1903, 2d ed.), pp. 150-82.

——. “Die staatswissenschaftliche Theorie der Griechen vor Arist. und Platon,” Zeitschrift für die gesammte Wissenschaft, 1853, pp. 115-82 (Tübingen).

Stewart. Notes to Ar., Nic. Ethics (2 vols.).*

St. Hilaire, B. Preface to translation of the Politics of Arist.

Thill, J. Die Eigenthumsfrage im klassischen Alterthum (Luxembourg, 1892).

Thomissen. Histoire du socialisms depuis l’antiquité jusqu’à la constitution française du 14 jan., 1852.

Trinchera, F. Storia critica dell’ economia publia (epoca antica) (Naples, 1873).

Vanderkindere, L. “Le Socialisms dans la Grèce antique,” Revue de l’Université de Brussels, I, 4, pp. 241-46.

Vogel, G. Die Oekonomik des Xenophon; eine Vorarbeit für die Geschichte der griechischen Oekonomik (Erlangen, 1895).

Walcker, K. Geschichte der Nationalökonomie und des Socialismus (Leipzig, 1902).

Wallon. Histoire de l’esclavage dans l’antiquité (Paris, 1879, 2d ed.). One chapter on theories of slavery.

Wolf, H. Geschichte des antiken Sozialismus und Individualismus (1909). A merely popular treatment.

Wilhelm, F. “Die Oeconomica der Neupythagoreer,” Rhein. Mus., XVII, No. 2 (1915), 162 ff.

Zmavc, J. “Die Werttheorie bei Arist. und Thos. Aquino,” Archiv für die Geschichte der Philosophie (Berlin, 1899), pp. 407 ff.*

Zmavc, J. “Die Geldtheorie und ihre Stellung innerhalb der Wirtschaft und staatswissenschaftliche Anschauungen des Arist.,” Zeitschrift für die ges. Staatswissenschaft, 1902, pp. 48-79.*

As stated, a large number of the foregoing list deal chiefly with actual conditions, rather than with theory. Besides these, many other works on phases of Greek economic history are cited in the course of our discussion, the names of which, with page-references, may be found in the index. All other works that are incidentally cited are also listed there. For an excellent presentation of the political economy of John Ruskin, and a selected bibliography on his work as a social and economic reformer, cf. the Library Edition of his works, from which we have often cited (George Allen, London, Introduction to Vol. XVII, 1905; bibliography, p. cxii).

INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND AUTHORS

Acquisition, 25, 27, 29, 59, 66, 78, 88, 89, 90, 93, 105, 111-15, 128, 138, 144, 147. See also Chrematistik; Exchange.

Adam, 36, 96, 151.

Adler, 55, 151.

Aeschines, 62.

Agriculture, 14 f., 18, 29 f., 31, 34, 38, 59, 63, 66-68, 79, 89-91, 93, 96, 114, 116, 128, 145 f., 148.

Alcaeus, 14.

Alcidamas, 17.

Alesio, 151.

Antisthenes, 65, 126, 131 f., 134.

Apollodorus, 91.

Aquinas, 148.

Ardaillon, 75.

Aristippus, 129.

Aristo, 141.

Aristophanes, 57, 66, 93, 119, 138.

Aristotle, 9, 12, 16, 17, 19, 21 f., 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 37, 39, 43, 44, 46, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56, 66, 67, 68, 69, 74, 75, 79, 81-124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133, 136, 137, 140, 142, 143, 147, 148.

Ashley, 113 f., 151.

Athenaeus, 133, 140.

Aulus Gellius, 52.

Barker, 9, 15, 16, 17, 84, 85, 90, 97, 98, 100, 101, 104, 105, 108, 110, 124, 130, 149, 151.

Barter, 35, 101, 106, 108, 113.

Bawerk, E. Boehm von, 106.

Bebel, 145.

Beloch, 9, 20, 45.

Bergk, 14.

Blanqui, 29, 48, 68, 82, 104, 151.

Boeckh, 9, 41, 47, 106, 134.

Bonar, 26, 28, 32, 36, 37, 48, 84, 90, 118, 134, 151.

Bright, 149.

Bryson, 126.

Bücher, 20.

Büchsenschütz, 65, 93.

Bussy, 48, 151.

Callicles, 16.

Callicratidas, 126.

Capital, 18, 30, 35, 47, 65, 67, 68 f., 91-93, 104, 117, 124, 137, 146. See also the Greek index for term.

Capitalism, 7, 8, 18, 19, 20, 21, 30, 40, 47, 62, 96, 106, 112.

Carlyle, 25, 44, 99, 101.

Caste system in Plato’s Republic, 37, 48 f.

Charetides, 91.

Chrematistik, 105, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 123, 124. See also Acquisition; Exchange.

Christ, W., 63, 81.

Chrysippus, 141 f.

Cicero, 125, 126, 130, 139, 142.

Civic strife, 13, 25, 26, 54, 55, 62, 74, 78, 79, 87, 118, 144, 147.

Cleanthes, 141.

Clement Alex., 15, 140.

Cognazzi, De, 151.

Collectivism, 31, 61, 123, 124.

Columella, 91.

Commerce. See Exchange.

Communism. See Socialism.

Communism of family, 18, 54, 55, 56, 117, 120, 133, 140, 142, 143, 145.

Competition, 14.

Conservation, 30, 147.

Consumption, 27, 46, 68, 91, 92, 105, 113, 114, 137, 145, 147, 149.

Cope, 83, 93.

Cornford, 14, 18, 41, 53.

Cossa, 67, 82, 134, 151.

Crantor, 125.

Crates, 133, 138, 139.

Credit, 39, 105, 106, 146. See the Greek index for term.

Croiset, 17, 63, 81.

Cynics, 16, 97, 103, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131-33, 134, 135, 136, 137, 139, 141.

Cyrenaics, 129, 130.

Decharme, 18.

Democritus, 15, 17, 23.

Demosthenes, 13, 45, 62, 66, 68, 69, 77 f., 105, 106, 114.

Dichaearchus, 143.

Diels, 15, 17.

Dietzel, 32, 57, 152.

Diminishing returns, 67, 146.

Dio Chrysostom, 13, 126, 130, 131, 132.

Diodorus, 145.

Diogenes, 131, 132 f., 138.

Diogenes Laertius, 17, 52, 100, 126, 127, 130, 131, 132, 133, 136, 139, 140, 141, 142.

Distribution, 12, 46 f., 51, 57, 74, 84, 102, 115-17, 118, 140. See also the Greek index for term.

Distributive justice, 102, 107.

Dobbs, 16, 25.

Doering, 69, 152.

Droysen, 45.

Drumann, 29, 57.

DuBois, 28, 35, 55, 82, 92, 104, 109, 114, 152.

Dühring, 71, 82, 101, 152.

Dümmler, 17.

Dunning, 130, 152.

Economica, 9, 14, 63, 69, 81, 94, 125, 126 f., 127-29, 131, 133.

Economic demand, 34, 64, 70, 72, 82, 83, 84, 86, 104, 108, 109, 110, 135, 146. See also the Greek index.

Economy: and asceticism, 12, 25, 60, 65, 131, 136, 137, 139; and ethics, 10, 18, 21, 29, 63, 81, 90, 146, 148, 149; domestic and public, 9, 63, 81 f., 111, 112, 113, 126, 146; influence of Greek, 8, 146-50; mediaeval, 39, 148; modern, 8, 11 f., 27, 44, 115; Ricardian, 8, 10, 11, 50.

Education, 50, 54, 95, 118, 121, 122, 149.

Eisenhart, 32, 152.

Ely, 11.

Ephorus, 143.

Epictetus, 133.

Epicurus, Epicurean, 52, 126, 129, 130.

Equality, 55 f., 60 f., 62, 79 f., 83, 109, 116, 118, 119, 120, 121, 145, 147.

Eryxias, 17, 103, 132, 133-37.

Esmein, 52.

Espinas, 9, 28, 29, 38, 43, 60, 61, 63, 65, 142, 148, 152.

Eudemian ethics, 81, 83, 87, 98, 107, 112, 120, 125, 128.

Eudemus, 127.

Euhemerus, 144 f.

Euripides, 17 f., 96, 136.

Exchange: Greek attitude toward, 14, 32, 33, 41-45, 56, 59, 66, 70, 73 f., 77, 79, 82, 91, 92, 94, 105, 109, 110, 111-15, 116, 123, 128, 140, 143, 145, 147, 148; regulations for, 43, 123; theory of, 35 f., 38, 40, 41, 83, 84, 89, 102, 104, 106-110, 115, 119, 128, 146, 147. See also Chrematistik; Acquisition; and the Greek index for terms.

Ferrara, 152.

Fontpertuis, 64, 67, 68, 96, 152.

Francotte, 20, 29, 32, 55, 57, 62, 124, 134, 152.

Gernet, 45.

Gilliard, 14.

Glaser, 152.

Göttling, 152.

Gold, 15, 40, 54, 133, 137.

Gomperz, 17, 49, 131, 133, 137.

Grain supply, 45.

Grote, 13, 49, 152.

Grundy, 45.

Guiraud, 29, 37, 51, 52, 54, 57, 58, 69, 123, 152.

Hagen, 134, 152.

Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaft, 108.

Haney, 7, 11, 19, 20, 21, 35, 48, 71, 72, 82, 84, 89, 105, 110, 113, 119, 148, 152.

Harpocration, 68.

Hasbach, 130.

Hecataeus, 144.

Heidel, 125, 133, 134, 137, 152.

Hense, 137.

Heraclitus, 15.

Hermann, 43.

Herodotus, 19, 45, 63, 66.

Herzog, 152.

Hesiod, 14, 17, 30, 33.

Hesychius, 93.

Hierocles, 126.

Hildebrand, 153.

Hippias, 16, 17.

Hippodamas of Miletus, 15, 52; the Pythagorean, 52.

Hippolytus, 52.

Hobbes, 16.

Hoderman, 126, 127, 134, 153.

Homer, 14, 52.

Horace, 129.

Individualism, 16, 56, 57, 75, 79, 119, 122, 130, 140 f., 142, 143.

Industry, 14, 29, 32, 35, 36, 47, 66, 69 f., 79, 90, 92, 95, 111, 116. See also Labor; Production.

Ingram, 7, 10, 72, 89, 104, 149, 153.

Interest, 31, 39 f., 59 f., 78, 92, 93, 105, 106, 148. See also Capital; Capitalism; and the Greek index for terms.

Isocrates, 13, 66, 68, 77-80, 88, 106, 143.

Jackson, 108.

Jamblichus, 15, 52, 127.

Jambulus, 145.

Jesus, 26, 49, 87, 136.

Jowett, 60, 95, 114, 153.

Just price, 23, 107, 108, 140.

Kaulla, 65, 153.

Kautsky, 153.

Kautz, 9, 12, 14, 15, 18, 31, 48, 65, 67, 70, 72, 89, 107, 134, 153.

Knies, 153.

Koutorga, 106.

Labor: attitude toward, 14, 17, 20, 29, 31-34, 37, 59, 69 f., 77, 79, 89, 91, 93-96, 116, 128, 132, 142; division of, 19, 29, 33, 34-47, 38, 41, 70 f., 73, 79, 96, 145, 146; in production, 18, 31, 47, 67, 83, 84, 96, 108, 110, 146. See also Production; Laborer; and the Greek index.

Laborer, attitude toward, 47-50, 74, 101, 116, 117, 145.

Lamb, 18.

Land tenure: in Aristotle’s state, 122 f.; in Greece, 51; in Plato’s Laws, 58 f., 62, 122; in other writers, 133, 144.

Law, overestimate of, 13, 51, 56, 61, 75.

Laws, historical basis of Plato’s, 43 f.

Leisure, 29, 87, 94, 95, 101, 116. See also the Greek index.

Lenormant, 72.

Liberality, 87, 121.

Loos, 153.

Lychophron, 16, 17, 119.

Lycurgus, 69, 140, 143.

Lysias, 45, 68.

Mabille, 153.

Macaulay, 103.

Magna Moralia, 81, 84, 87, 88, 125.

Malthus, 45 f.

Malon, 55.

Martiis, De, 52, 57, 153.

Marx, 84, 124.

Menger, 108 f., 153.

Mercantilism, 41, 72, 86, 103, 104.

Mesnil-Marigny, Du, 151.

Metrodorus, 127.

Meyer, 9, 20, 21, 106.

Mill, 8, 27, 50, 68, 85, 86, 92, 117, 149.

Mines, mining, 13, 66, 67, 74, 75, 128.

Money: and wealth, 72, 86, 103, 104, 135, 137, 146; attitude toward, 73, 106, 105, 140, 141, 145, 148; function, 15, 38 f., 41, 84, 101 f., 103, 106, 108, 113, 115, 146; history of, 35, 38, 101 f., 112, 146; intrinsic value of, 40, 72, 102, 103, 104, 135, 137, 146; materials, 40, 60, 72, 105, 129; stability, 72, 104, 146. See also Interest; Gold; Silver; Mercantilism; and the Greek index.

Monopoly, 110, 129, 147.

More, 149.

Mueller, 143.

Mullach, 15, 125, 131, 132, 133.

Nationalism, 62, 124.

Nauck, 17 f.

Nearing, 40.

Nettleship, 37.

Newman, 17, 86, 89, 91, 97, 101, 103, 112, 114, 132, 153.

New Pythagoreans, 127.

Nic. Damasc., 143.

Oncken, 37, 48, 55, 129, 134, 140, 149, 150, 153.

Oresme, 148.

Paley-Sandys, 106.

Palgrave’s Dictionary, 104, 153.

Pericles, 12.

Periktione, 126.

Peters, 108.

Phaleas, 16, 53, 118, 120, 142.

Philodemus, 126, 127, 130.

Phintys, 126.

Photius, 52.

Physiocratic tendencies, 28 f., 30, 41, 89, 110, 140, 149. See also Exchange; Production.

Pindar, 83.

Plato, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22-62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 69, 70, 71, 74, 75, 78, 79, 81, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 102, 104, 106, 107, 108, 111, 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 131, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 142, 144, 145, 148, 149.

Platon, G., 153.

Plutarch, 125, 126, 127, 140, 143 f.

Poehlmann, 7, 20, 21, 29, 32, 33, 36, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 61, 62, 74, 75, 76, 101, 105, 106, 112, 117, 119, 120, 124, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 153.

Pohlenz, 53, 56, 57.

Pollux, 93.

Polybius, 143 f.

Population, 45 f., 59, 74, 115, 120.

Porphyry, 52, 126, 143.

Poverty, 14, 15, 27, 47, 48, 50, 55, 56, 59, 60, 74, 75, 78, 79, 87, 109, 115, 120, 130, 132, 133, 138, 139, 140, 144, 147.

Prices, regulation of, 43, 45, 47, 108, 110, 147.

Private property. See Socialism.

Prodicus, 17.

Production, 27-37, 66-69, 74, 83, 88-93, 96, 146, 149. See also Industry; Physiocratic tendencies; and the Greek index.

Profits, 46, 74, 109, 110, 116.

Protagoras, 17.

Publicity, 45, 60, 61, 147.

Pythagoras, 15, 52.

Quesnay, 89.

Rambaud, 153.

Rassow, 108.

Reciprocity, 34, 41, 96, 146.

Regnier, 153.

Ricardo. See Ricardian economy.

Ritchie, 83.

Robin, 22, 27, 28, 37, 43, 52, 153.

Rodbertus, 20.

Roscher, 9, 18, 32, 72, 148, 153.

Rousseau, 131, 143, 149.

Ruskin, 9, 11, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 44, 45, 46, 55, 61, 63, 64, 67, 87, 92, 93, 95, 99, 100, 101, 105, 109, 110, 111, 135, 137, 138, 145, 149, 150, 154.

Salvio, 154.

Sappho, 14.

Say, 148.

Schaeffle, 112.

Schneider, 154.

Schoenberg, 11.

Schrohl, 134, 136, 154.

Schulte, 43 f., 154.

Seligman, 11.

Seneca, 130, 139, 141.

Sewall, 64, 83, 154.

Shorey, 18, 28, 36, 55, 56, 58, 62, 99, 154.

Silver, 40, 54, 65, 72, 133, 137.

Simey, 72, 134, 154.

Slavery, 16, 18, 21, 32, 37 f., 62, 67, 70, 86, 91, 92, 94, 95, 97-101, 123, 126, 128, 129, 132, 133, 142, 147.

Smith, Adam, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 41, 64, 71, 75, 82, 86, 91, 92, 93, 115, 149.

Social contract, 15, 16, 22, 119, 130, 146.

Social origins, 22, 34, 119 f., 146.

Socialism and communism, 12 f., 45, 51, 53, 79, 147, 151; in Aristotle, 96, 105, 118-24; in Greece, 12 f., 51, 143; in Laws, 58-62; in Republic, 48, 49, 50, 54-58; in Xenophon, 75 f.; in other writers, 15, 52-54, 79 f., 130, 140 f., 142-45.

Socrates, 22, 26, 31, 57, 63, 67, 69, 73, 74, 129, 134, 136, 144.

Solon, 13, 14.

Sophists, 16, 17, 18, 22, 36, 73, 97, 111, 119, 130, 131, 142.

Souchon, 7, 10, 17, 31, 36, 37, 41, 48, 49, 52, 53, 55, 57, 62, 72, 82, 88, 89, 93, 104, 106, 123, 124, 141, 142, 143, 148, 150, 154.

Spencer, 35.

Speusippus, 125.

Stein, 55, 140, 154.

Steinhart-Mueller, 134.

Stewart, 83, 84, 92, 94, 95, 102, 107, 108, 116, 119, 154.

St. Hilaire, 81, 82, 154.

Stimson, 149.

Stobaeus, 15, 52, 126, 127, 130, 137, 139, 141.

Stoics, 16, 19, 125, 126, 127, 130, 134, 135, 136, 139-42, 143, 144.

St. Paul, 49, 120, 132.

Strabo, 132, 143.

Susemihl, 81, 89, 96, 127, 128.

Sussitia, 60, 117, 122 f.

Tariff, 41, 73, 110, 129.

Teles, 132, 133, 137-39.

Theocritus, 143.

Theognis, 14.

Theophrastus, 91, 125, 126, 127.

Theopompus, 144.

Thill, 154.

Thomissen, 154.

Thoreau, 12, 25, 26.

Thrasymachus, 16.

Thucydides, 10, 12, 18, 45, 66, 68, 69.

Timaeus, 52.

Trinchera, 154.

Usener, 130.

Utility, 22 f., 64, 65, 83, 88, 134, 135, 138, 146, 149.

Value, 22 f., 64 f., 82-84, 85, 96, 115, 134 f., 149. See also the Greek index.

Vanderkindere, 154.

Varro, 91.

Villeneuve-Bargemont, De, 152.

Vogel, 154.

von Arnim, 133, 139, 140, 141, 142.

Wages, 17, 46, 47, 74, 116.

Wagner (Pastor), 136.

Wagner, 150.

Walcker, 154.

Walker, 86.

Wallon, 97, 98, 154.

War, 25, 27, 36, 37, 66, 67, 70, 73, 79, 128, 147.

Wealth: attitude toward, 15, 17, 18, 24-27, 48, 50, 55, 56, 60, 65 f., 77, 78, 79, 81, 86-88, 109, 125 f., 127, 129, 130, 131 f., 133-37, 138 f., 139 f., 141, 144, 146, 147; defined, 24, 27, 65, 85 f., 91, 112, 133, 146, 149. See also the Greek index.

Wilhelm, 7, 127, 154.

Wolf, 57, 141, 154.

Xenocrates, 125, 126.

Xenophon, 9, 10, 15, 17, 19, 22, 23, 25, 30, 38, 42, 46, 63-76, 81, 84, 89, 91, 96, 97, 111, 126, 127, 128, 129, 131, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, 149.

Zell, 105.

Zeller, 15, 17, 32, 34, 48, 49, 52, 81, 97, 125, 127, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133, 139.

Zeno, 139 f., 141, 142, 144.

Zimmern, 9, 14, 29, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44 f., 45, 66.

Zmavc, 9, 81, 82, 84, 90, 104, 115, 124, 148, 154.

INDEX OF GREEK TERMS

ἀγοραστική, 40.

ἀδιάφορα, 125, 139.

αἰτίας, 28.

ἀλλαγή, 38, 39, 40, 41, 89, 106, 140.

ἀξία, 23, 64, 84, 86.

ἄπειρος, 25, 85, 112.

ἀπολαυστική, 40, 68.

ἀργύριον, 24, 72.

ἀσχολία, 66.

αὐτάρκεια (αὐτάρκης), 34, 112, 138, 144.

αὐτοπωλική, 40.

αὐτουργός, 18, 40, 89, 96.

αὐτόφυτον, 89, 113.

ἀφορμή, 68, 79, 92, 96, 106, 111, 131.

βάναυσος (βαναυσικαί, βαναυσία), 70, 93, 95, 113, 140.

δημιουργός, 23, 36, 48, 93.

διανομή, 115, 116.

διορθωτικόν, 102.

ἐγγυητής, 103.

εἰσαγώγιμα (ἐπεισαγωγίμων), 35, 110, 128.

ἔμπορος (ἐμπορική, ἐμπορία), 35, 41, 42, 73, 111, 113.

ἐνεργά, 69. (ἀργά, 68.)

ἐξαγώγιμα (ἐξαγομένων), 110, 128.

ἔρανος, 68.

ἐργασία, 66, 89, 90, 113.

εὐμεταχείριστον, 102.

θησαυρισμός, 85, 86.

ἰσότης, 56.

κάπηλος (καπηλική, καπηλεία), 35, 40, 41, 42, 78, 89, 111, 112, 113, 141.

κάρπιμα, 68.

κατά τὴν ἀναλογίαν ἴσον, 83.

κεφάλαιος, 30, 69.

κίβδηλος (ἀκίβδηλος), 42, 43.

κτήματα, 24, 64, 82, 85, 88, 138.

κτῆσις, 25, 65, 92, 125, 128.

κτητική, 28, 88, 111, 112, 113.

μεταβλητική, 40, 82, 111.

μισθαρνία, 89, 113.

ναυκληρία, 113.

νόμισμα, 38, 39, 84, 102, 103, 128, 133, 140.

νόμος, 16, 103, 119, 127, 142.

ξύμβολον τῆς ἀλλαγῆς, 102.

ὀβολοστατική, 105.

οἰκειατάτῃ, 91, 113.

οἰκονομική (οἰκονομία, οἰκονόμος), 9, 107, 111, 112, 114, 126, 128, 140.

ὄργανον, 86, 88, 91, 97.

παράστασις, 113.

πίστις, 68, 77, 106.

πλοῦτος, (πλούσιον) 24, 85, 112, 125, 127, 132, 135.

ποίησις, (ποιητική), 28, 69, 88, 92, 97.

πρᾶξις, (πρακτική), 69, 88, 92, 97.

στάσις, (διάστασις), 13, 25, 62, 87.

συμβλητά, 102.

συναιτίους, 28.

σχολή, 87.

τέχνη, 66, 93, 113, 145.

τίμη, 84.

τὸ ἴσον ἀντιπεπονθός (τὸ ἀντιπεπονθὸς κατ᾽ ἀναλογίαν), 96, 107, 121.

τόκος (τοκισμός), 39, 93, 105, 113.

φορτηγία, 113.

φύσις, 16, 36, 89, 96, 98, 106, 113, 127, 128, 131, 132, 142.

χρεία, 34, 82, 84, 102, 108.

χρήματα, 15, 24, 25, 28, 38, 64, 65, 84, 112, 134, 135, 137, 138.

χρηματιστική (χρηματιστής), 9, 26, 42, 73, 85, 88, 106, 107, 110, 111, 112, 113, 140, 141.

χρυσός (χρυσίον), 24, 72, 83.

Transcriber’s Notes:

Missing or obscured punctuation was corrected.

Typographical errors were silently corrected.