Chapter Vi Is Dedicated to the Stopping of Decayed Teeth. the Sole

materials used by the author for stopping were lead, tin, and gold. “Fine tin,” he says, “is preferable to lead, for lead turns black much more easily and is much less durable; both are preferable to gold, because lighter and adapting themselves better to the unevenness of the carious cavities. Besides, gold being dear, not everyone can or will make the corresponding outlay.” The author here adds that those who, from vanity or because possessed by the opinion that gold has special virtues, will not have their tooth stopped except with it, not unfrequently find dentists who, as the saying, goes, content them and cozen them by using leaf tin or lead colored yellow, and making them pay for it as gold stopping!

Some of the dental files used by Fauchard. The little square figure represents a small grooved wedge destined to be inserted in large interdental spaces, in order to give more firmness to the teeth to be filed.]

The leaf metals were introduced and compressed into the carious cavities by means of three kinds of pluggers, which would nowadays be considered altogether insufficient and unfit for the purpose, but which then, nevertheless, served to produce excellent stoppings. The author speaks of a lead stopping which had lasted in perfect condition for forty years.

Before stopping the tooth the cavity was scraped and its opening widened, if necessary, but no special form was given to the cavity itself, as is done at the present day.

Instruments for scraping the carious cavities (Fauchard).]

As at that time the state of the dental pulp was not taken into consideration before stopping a tooth, it often occurred that the stopping caused violent pain, which rendered its removal necessary.

Fauchard says that “if the sensibility of the carious cavity be too great, the lead ought only to be pressed in very lightly at first, then after one or two days a little more, continuing thus until it is properly compressed and fitted in, always provided, of course, that the pain does not increase. The sensitive parts of the tooth become thus more easily used to the pressure of the lead, and the pain is in this manner avoided or moderated.”

Three instruments for plugging teeth. The two small figures represent silver plates for straightening teeth (Fauchard).]

The author also makes the remark that sometimes, in scraping a carious cavity, “it is not possible to avoid uncovering and touching the nerve with the instruments; one becomes aware of this by the pain caused, and better still by a little blood issuing from the dental vessels.” In such cases, Fauchard advises stopping of the tooth immediately, for if it be carried out with delay, it is sure to be followed by inflammation and great pain, rendering necessary the removal of the lead or even the extraction of the tooth.

A gum lancet and two elevators, the second of which is destined to act from inside outward (Fauchard).]

Cauterization of the teeth continued to be much used in Fauchard’s time, and this is very easily explainable when one considers that there was not then any other means of destroying the dental pulp. In making use of the actual cautery, the immediate end in view was to cause the cessation of obstinate toothache. “When the teeth give great pain and no relief is to be derived from the use of other remedies, one ought to cauterize the caries after having removed the extraneous substances that may eventually be found in the carious cavity. After the cauterization one scrapes the cavity and fills it up with cotton-wool soaked in oil of cinnamon. Later on one stops the tooth.”

An extracting instrument called by Fauchard lever or tirtoire, and the handle of a pelican without the hooks.]

The chapter in which Fauchard treats of the correction of dental irregularities is of particular interest. In speaking of his observations, we have already seen that in this field also he knew how to obtain splendid and admirable results. He, nevertheless, made use of the most simple means—the file, pressure with the fingers, common threads or silk ones, little plates of silver or gold. At times, for straightening teeth, he made use of the pelican and the straight pincers, afterward tying the teeth in their normal position. He rarely had recourse to extraction as a means of carrying out dental corrections.

Fauchard’s simple pelican (with one changeable hook).]

Fauchard’s double pelican.]

To steady loose teeth, Fauchard, as did the ancients, made use of gold threads. When the spaces separating a loose tooth from the neighboring ones were too large, he introduced small pieces of hippopotamus ivory into them of about the height of a line, and not exceeding the tooth itself in thickness; on each side of these was a vertical groove destined to serve as a support to the next tooth. Each of these pieces was furnished with two holes, through which were passed the gold threads which served to bind together the teeth and the piece of ivory itself. This latter was fixed close down to the gum.

Dental forceps (Fauchard).]

Fauchard occupies himself in three different chapters (X, XI, XII) at great length with the extraction of teeth. He describes a pelican of his own invention, and speaks of the advantages it presents over other pelicans previously in use. Notwithstanding this, it cannot be said that the instruments used by Fauchard for extracting teeth and roots show a sensible improvement on those in use before his time.

Straight forceps and crane’s bill or crow’s bill forceps (Fauchard).]

Among the most usual operations, the author enumerates transplantation and especially replantation of the teeth. Whenever, says Fauchard, a wrong tooth is extracted by accident, it ought to be immediately replanted, and the same ought to be done when violent pain renders it necessary to extract a tooth that is not much decayed, as the patient is thus relieved without losing the tooth. Fauchard adds that this operation succeeds excellently in the case of incisors and canines, and very often, too, with small molars.

Cutting forceps (Fauchard).]

Cutting forceps (Fauchard).]

After having spoken of transplantation, he says: “There is another mode of replacing human or natural teeth which I have never yet seen used except by a provincial dentist whose name I ignore.” This special method consists in the transplantation of a tooth—it matters little whether recently extracted or not—after having made three or four notches in its root of about a line in depth. The author goes on to describe all the particularities of the operation, and then adds: “After twenty-five or thirty days one removes the thread, and the tooth is found to be firm in the alveolus, owing to the fact that this latter, exercising a pressure on the root on every side, becomes perfectly moulded upon it. In this manner, the tooth will remain mortised, and may be preserved for a considerable time.”

Pincers used by Fauchard in the operation of tying teeth with gold wire. The three larger figures represent natural or artificial teeth in which holes and horizontal grooves have been made in order to fix them with gold threads. The two smaller represent pieces of hippopotamus ivory with a vertical groove on each side, destined to fill large interdental spaces and to steady loose teeth by means of gold ligatures.]

This method, invented by an unknown provincial dentist, has been recently applied by Znamenski, of Moscow, for the implantation of artificial teeth made of porcelain, of caoutchouc, or gutta-percha.

One of Fauchard’s greatest merits consists in the improvements introduced by him in dental prosthesis and in his having, besides, been the first to treat of this most important part of dental art in a clear and particularized manner.

The materials then most used in dental prosthesis were human teeth, hippopotamus tusks, ivory of the best quality, and ox bone.

The author minutely describes the methods to be followed to repair dental losses in every possible case and of whatever extent.

According to the circumstances, Fauchard used, for maintaining artificial teeth in their place, linen, silk, or gold thread, passed through holes made in them, and tied to the natural teeth.

When a set of two, three, four, or more teeth was to be applied, Fauchard first prepared them separately and then united them together by means of one or two threads of gold or silver in such a manner that the set formed at last a single piece, which was then fixed to the natural teeth. When the piece consisted of several teeth it was reinforced with a small plate of gold or silver fixed to its inside by means of small tacks of the same metal riveted on one side to the plate, on the other to the front part of each tooth.

The author remarks that a similar prosthetic piece lasted longer than those previously described, but required proportionately much more work and much greater expense. He adds that, by employing this plate, one can even dispense with threading and fixing the teeth together with gold or silver wire; but that it was then necessary to make a horizontal groove at the back of each tooth corresponding to the width and thickness of the plate, which could be fitted into the serial groove and fixed to each single tooth by means of two small rivets.

At other times the prosthesis was carried out in a single piece of material (ivory, hippopotamus tusk, etc.) that was carved in such a manner as to substitute exactly the teeth wanting, it being fixed to the natural teeth in the usual manner.

Fauchard sometimes left the dental roots in their place (if they were in good condition), applying upon them artificial crowns, which he either bound to the neighboring teeth or fixed with screws to the respective roots.

“When one wishes to apply an artificial crown to the root of a natural tooth, one files away the part of the root that emerges above the gum, and even more if possible. One then removes, with proper instruments, all that is decayed in the root itself; after which one stops the root canal with lead and fits the base of the artificial tooth to the root in such a manner that they correspond perfectly to each other. One drills one or two holes in the tooth through which to pass the ends of a thread, which serves to fasten it to the natural teeth on each side of it, as described above.

“If the root canal has been very considerably enlarged by the carious process, so as to have rendered it necessary to stop it, the root being, nevertheless, still quite steady, one bores a small hole in the lead as deep and as straight as possible, without, however, penetrating farther down than the root canal. The artificial crown is then united to the root by a pivot in the manner I shall now describe.”

The method of applying pivot teeth is described with great accuracy. In it the author considers all the different circumstances that may present themselves, and says, among other things, that if the root is still sensitive to pain, one should apply the actual cautery inside the canal, before fitting the artificial crown to the root. For fixing the pivot inside the artificial crown (which was generally the crown of a human tooth), Fauchard used a special cement made with gum lac, Venetian turpentine, and powdered white coral.

In the case of there not being any whole teeth to which the prosthetic piece would be fixed, but only roots, Fauchard made two holes in it in perfect correspondence with the canals of two roots, and fixed the prosthetic piece to these by means of two pyramidal screws.

This method suggests in a certain way the idea of bridge work.

In Chapters XVII, XVIII, XXIV, and XXV, Fauchard describes various methods for the application of entire sets of false teeth, both upper and lower, as well as double.

The author says that if the lower jaw is entirely toothless, a set of teeth can be adapted thereto without the need of any special contrivance; however, it is necessary that the prosthetic piece should fit perfectly, so that the configuration of the maxillary arch and the irregularities of the gum, finding themselves in complete correspondence with the piece itself, may keep it steady in its place. The support offered by the tongue interiorly, by the cheeks and the under lip exteriorly, contributes to keep the artificial set steady; one can thus masticate as easily with it as with one’s own teeth, especially if the teeth of the upper jaw be still existing and the individual be already sufficiently used to the wearing of it.

With regard to the application of an entire set of upper teeth, one learns from Fauchard that although some attempt had been made in this direction before this time, the results had been very unsatisfactory. He relates that: “In 1737 a lady of high rank, of about the age of sixty, who had not lost any of her lower teeth, but was deprived entirely of the upper ones, applied to M. Caperon, dentist to the King, who was most able in his profession, in the hope that he might be able to furnish her mouth with an upper set. But he said that, no tooth whatever being left in existence, every possible point of attachment was wanting, and it would therefore be as difficult to do this as it would be to build in the air.” He, however, directed the lady to Fauchard, who asked for a few days to think the matter over, and succeeded in devising a means of applying an upper set of teeth, which, in fact, entirely satisfied the wishes and wants of the client. “As this lady,” says the author, “simply wished to have the front of her mouth decorated, and to be able to pronounce more perfectly, I gave less extension to the set. The lady eats easily with it and could not now do without it. For greater convenience she has two similar sets, which she uses alternately.”

Complete dentures (Fauchard). f. 3 represents an enamelled denture with artificial gums; f. 4 and f. 5, steel springs.]

An upper denture supported by springs fixed to a gold appliance which embraces the natural teeth of the lower jaw (Fauchard).]

The author describes with great minuteness the manner in which the prosthetic apparatus in question was constructed and supported, and then speaks of the successive improvements introduced by him into this most important part of prosthetic dentistry, particularly in what regards the springs destined for the support of the upper set of teeth.

A spring denture for a case in which the lower front teeth still exist. Figs. 1 to 6, various parts of the apparatus (Fauchard).]

Fauchard also relates having made an attempt to apply an upper set of teeth without the aid of springs, which proved successful in three cases. “One can,” says he, “adopt an entire set of teeth to the upper jaw, of much greater simplicity than those described, and which is maintained in its place by the sole support of the cheeks and the lower teeth. It must be very light indeed and serves almost solely to improve the appearance and the pronunciation; but when the individual gets used to it, he can also masticate with it. A set of teeth of this kind ought to adhere well to the gums and to be constructed in such a manner that the cheeks may afford it sufficient pressure and support together with the aid of the lower teeth; these latter sometimes bring it back into its place, without anyone perceiving the movement except the wearer himself. Not long since I had to renovate a set of teeth of this kind made by me more than twenty-four years ago, and worn by the owner to the greatest advantage. I have since made two others which have proved most useful to the persons wearing them. It is true that there are few mouths adapted for wearing these sets, so much so that, excepting the three referred to, I have never made any others. To be able to construct similar sets successfully, the dentist must be possessed of skill and ingenuity. Apart from this, they are the most suitable for persons who cannot spend much, as they cost less to make.”

Fauchard did not merely content himself with having perfected dental prosthesis in the manner alluded to; he also succeeded in giving a quite natural appearance to artificial teeth. To reach this end he placed the art of the enameller under contribution to the dental art. Thus he had artificial pieces covered over with enamel, imparting to them the hue that seemed to him best adapted, and also imitating admirably the natural color of the gums, so as to render the illusion perfect. The pieces to be enamelled were worked by special rules, which are minutely given in Chapter XIX of the second volume of his book.

Fauchard also brought the palatine prosthesis to a high degree of perfection. He describes five different obturators of the palate, which of themselves alone would be sufficient to testify to the highly inventive genius of the author, although they are defective in being somewhat too complicated. Some of these fixtures are a combination of a dental set and palatine obturator.

We ought now to mention, in the order of chronology, some authors of lesser importance.

VASSE and DE DIEST wrote about the danger of fatal hemorrhage following on dental operations. They report a few cases of this kind, giving the blame of these accidents, however, to the carelessness of the operator.

LAVINI published in Florence, in the year 1740, a very good treatise on dentistry (Trattato sopra la qualità de’ denti, col modo di cavarli, mantenerli e fortificarli), which, however, marks no advance on the work of Fauchard.

M. BUNON (died 1749), a French dentist, wrote four admirable works on dentistry, which were published from 1741 to 1744. We will here briefly allude to the most salient ideas therein contained.

This author combated strenuously some prejudices then generally diffused; such as that of its not being advisable to extract teeth during pregnancy, and that of the extraction of an upper canine (eye tooth) being attended with great danger. He demonstrated the absurdity of the latter idea by putting in evidence the anatomical fact that the upper canines are innervated by the infra-orbital nerve, which does not stand in any relation whatever to the organ of sight.

Among the other remedies recommended by him against the disorders and perils of first dentition, there is one most curious, not to say ridiculous: he advises rubbing the nape of the neck, the shoulders, the back, and the lower limbs of the child, but in doing this the friction should proceed from above downward, in order to offer resistance to the flow of humors toward the upper parts of the body. The utility and efficacy of this kind of massage in favoring the process of dentition seems, of a truth, very open to question.

Bunon speaks at length of erosion of the teeth, and declares himself to be the discoverer of this disease, which destroys the enamel of the teeth already before their eruption. The first molars, the canines, and the incisors are much more frequently damaged and affected by it than the other teeth. According to Bunon, it is generally due to measles, smallpox, malignant fevers, or scurvy, when children are subject to these maladies during dentition, and more especially during the first. He is of the opinion that erosion not only generates caries, but may be considered as being the origin of the greater part of dental affections.

This author distinguishes three principal kinds of dental tartar, the black, the pale yellow, and the brownish yellow; he admits, however, two other kinds that are less frequent, that is, the red tartar and the green.

He relates having observed in the jaw of a child, who died at the age of three years and a half, a splintering of the alveolar parietes in all directions, and attributes this phenomena to disproportion between the size of the teeth and the alveoli. On the basis of his anatomical observations, he says that caries only appears on teeth that have already come out of the gums, whilst erosion is produced in teeth not yet erupted, indeed, at times, several years previous to their eruption.

We will also mention, by way of a curiosity, Bunon’s proposal to substitute the word legs for that of dental roots.

FR. A. GERAULDY, a French dentist, wrote (1737) an excellent treatise on dental maladies and on the mode of preserving the teeth. His book, which was also translated into German, contributed to the diffusion of knowledge relative to dental prophylaxis and therapeutics, but apart from this brought no increment to the progress of practical dentistry. Some of the ideas of the author, however, merit consideration. He clearly expresses the opinion that the shedding of the milk teeth is brought about by the pressure exercised upon them by the germs of the permanent teeth in course of development. The loss of the teeth in young subjects, or in those who have not yet reached forty years of age, is explained by the author in an altogether special manner. He relates that Louis XIV, at the age of thirty-five, had lost all his upper teeth, and the considerations he makes on the subject bring him to the conclusion that the precocious loss of the upper teeth depends in many cases on a paralysis of the nervous fibers that go to them, which paralysis is probably caused by a dissolute and intemperate life, having as its consequence the weakening of the organism and, above all, of the nervous system. Without doubt there is some truth in Gerauldy’s ideas, it being well known that the falling of the teeth (as well as of the nails and the hair) often depends on nutritive disorders deriving from nervous disturbances. We have the clear proof of this in certain cases of tabes dorsalis accompanied by the spontaneous falling of the teeth and nails.

JOSEPH HURLOCK, an Englishman, published a treatise in 1742, in which he warmly recommends lancing the gums in cases of difficult dentition; he declares this to be entirely without danger, and affirms that it constitutes the sole means of salvation for not a few infants who without it would die of convulsions.

MOUTON, in 1746, that is, in the same year in which the second edition of Fauchard’s work was issued, gave to the light a monograph, the first extant, on mechanical dentistry. The methods of this author for the most part do not differ from those of Fauchard, nevertheless one finds several important innovations in his work. To prevent the further deterioration of teeth already much destroyed, and to preserve them some time longer, Mouton had recourse to the application of “calottes d’or,” that is, gold crowns. He used this for the front teeth as well as for the molars, but in the former case he had them enamelled to give them the same appearance as natural teeth.

Mouton also invented a new method of applying artificial teeth. Up to then the ordinary method had been that of fixing them to the natural teeth by means of threads passed through holes made in the artificial teeth expressly for that purpose. Mouton is the first to speak of artificial teeth fixed to the natural teeth adjoining them by means of springs or clasps.

This author relates having carried out several transplantations with perfect success, a thing that contributed greatly to his renown not only in France, but also in England. He distinguished himself, besides, by the correction of dental irregularities. Lastly, it is to be noted that this author frequently had recourse, as a remedy against toothache, to the stretching of the dental nerve by means of moving and partially raising the tooth (subluxation).

A. WESTPHAL. In proof of the great utility of lancing the gums in cases of difficult dentition, A. Westphal reports a case in which the difficult eruption of an upper canine tooth provoked considerable inflammation and protrusion of the eye on the same side as the tooth; these symptoms promptly disappeared, however, as soon as the gum was lanced down to the tooth itself.

J. BERTIN also declares himself in favor of this operation; he recommends never to neglect it in cases of difficult dentition, and to make the said incisions deep and wide enough.

L. H. RUNGE, a surgeon of Bremen, published, in 1750, a monograph on the diseases of the frontal and maxillary sinuses. He says that in cases of inflammation of Highmore’s antrum, the pus may make its way, corroding the bone, as far as the alveoli, or, sometimes, as far as the orbital cavity; and, vice versa, alveolar suppuration can give rise, by diffusion, to abscess of the maxillary sinus. In this latter, tumors of various kinds may form (polypi, cysts, sarcomas, cancers, exostosis), the existence of which is ignored at first, and only becomes manifest tardily. Runge’s father, who was also a surgeon, had occasion to observe, and to treat an important case of disease of the maxillary sinus, with considerable dilatation of the same, not only on the side of the cheek, but also on the side of the palate and of the nasal fossæ. With a strong scalpel he perforated the outer wall of the antrum above the molars (keeping the cheek detached) and enlarged the aperture by making the instrument turn around on its own axis, thus giving exit to a considerable quantity of non-purulent liquid. Detersive and aromatic injections were used for some time. The canine tooth, situated obliquely, having been extracted, its alveolus was found to communicate with the antrum. From this moment, the injections being continued, a rapid improvement was obtained and the patient was so completely cured that no deformity of the face remained.

Runge relates a case in which, having extracted a canine tooth, he found a cyst adhering to its root. From this he is induced to believe that in the case related above the disorder was also to be attributed to a large cyst having its origin in the root of the canine.

According to him, the ozena always stands in relation to a suppurative affection of the maxillary sinus, and for its treatment one must, therefore, have recourse to Drake’s operations.

GEORG HEURMANN, a surgeon in Copenhagen, recommends making use, after the Cowper-Drake operation, of a small cannula in order to facilitate the exit of the pathological material contained in the sinus, and also to render it easier to introduce into it medicated or detersive substances.

LÉCLUSE. One of the most celebrated French dentists of the eighteenth century is Lécluse. Dental literature was enriched by him with several works, partly written in popular style, partly addressed to dental specialists. In 1750 he published his Traité utile au public, où l’on enseigne la méthode de remédier aux douleurs et aux accidents qui précèdent et qui accompagnent la sortie des premières dents, de procurer un arrangement aux secondes, enfin de les entretenir et de les conserver pendant le cours de la vie. The work seems to have been very favorably received, as its first edition, printed in Nancy, was followed by a second, printed in Paris, only four years later. In 1755 he published another book: Eclaircissements essentiels pour parvenir à préserver les dents de la carie et le conserver jusqu’à l’extrème vieillesse. But the most important of his works is the Nouveaux éléments d’odontologie, the first edition of which was published in 1754, and followed by a second in 1782.

We do not enter into a minute examination of these works, which, taken altogether, do not contain anything very new. We will only remark that Lécluse treated in a succinct but correct manner the anatomy of the mouth; invented some and perfected other instruments, the most important of which is the elevator that still bears his name, and finally, that he frequently performed the operation of replantation, warmly recommended by him as an excellent means of cure in certain cases of caries. The extracted tooth was stopped and afterward replanted, and, says Lécluse, became fast within eight days, proving as serviceable as a perfectly healthy tooth, and never again causing any pain.

PHILIP PFAFF, dentist to Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, was the first among the Germans who wrote a real treatise on dentistry. His book contains, in 184 succinctly but well-written pages, the anatomical and physiological notions relative to the teeth, as well as all that belongs to dental pathology, therapy, and prosthesis.

Besides a few observations about supernumerary teeth, Pfaff relates several cases in which the incisors, inferior as well as superior, were renewed (twice consecutively), that is, once at the usual epoch, and the second time between the seventh and thirteenth years. He also cites from the anatomical tables of Kulmus the following epitaph in low Latin, that seems to allude to a case of third dentition:

“Decanus in Kirchberg, sine dente canus, ut anus Interum dentescit, ter juvenescit, his requiescit.”

In cases of hemorrhage ensuing on the extraction of teeth, the best hemostatic, according to Pfaff, is essence of turpentine, a remedy which in these cases he had always found efficient. He introduced a little ball of lint bathed in this essence as deeply as possible into the alveolus, applying upon it some blotting paper reduced to pulp or some dry lint that the patient compressed tightly by closing his teeth.

Gingival abscesses as well as fistulæ of the maxillary region almost always owe their origin, says Pfaff, to decayed teeth, and can, therefore, in general, not be cured except by the extraction of these teeth.

The prosthetic methods described by this author are, for the most part, identical with those of Fauchard and the other French dentists already mentioned. As to the materials used for prosthesis at different periods, Pfaff mentions, besides ivory, bone, hippopotamus tusk, teeth of sea cow, and human teeth, also teeth made of silver, of mother of pearl, and even of copper enamelled.

The chief merit one must concede to Philip Pfaff is that of having been the first to make use of plaster models. It is, therefore, to two Germans—Pfaff and Purmann, the latter who, as we have already seen, used wax models—that one of the greatest progressive movements in dental prosthesis is indebted, that is, the method of taking casts and making models, of which method one finds no trace whatever in the authors of antiquity, and which, it would appear, was not known even to Fauchard himself. The wax casts of an entire jaw were taken by Pfaff in two pieces, one of the right half of the jaw, and the other of the left; which were then reunited, and one thus avoided spoiling the cast in removing it from the mouth.

Another great merit of Philip Pfaff is that of having first carried out the capping of an exposed dental pulp, previous to stopping a tooth.

Notwithstanding this, Pfaff is not the first who, as Geist-Jacobi is inclined to believe, had dared to apply a filling over an exposed dental pulp without first cauterizing it. As we have already seen, Fauchard did not hesitate in the least to fill a tooth when the dental pulp had become exposed in scraping the carious cavity. But the French dentist carried out, with much delicacy, a simple filling, whilst Pfaff first capped the dental nerve.

JACOB CHRISTIAN SCHAFFER. In 1757 the evangelical pastor, J. Ch. Schaffer (we do not know if he was at the same time a dentist, or merely an amateur in odontology), wrote a little book to disprove the existence of worms in decayed teeth, and to show the fallacy of believing that the supposed worms may be made to drop out by means of fumigations of henbane seeds. His book appeared, as a matter of fact, rather behind-hand, for in it Schaffer repeats in substance what Houllier had already said two centuries earlier, and after him various other authors, including Fauchard. At any rate, to coöperate in the complete destruction of error and in the diffusion of truth is always laudable. We feel, however, bound to add that in the very same year in which Schaffer’s pamphlet was published, DUFOUR, a Frenchman, described a worm that had been taken out of a decayed tooth, and called attention to the fact that it was altogether different from the “dental worms” described by Andry.

BOURDET. An excellent book on dentistry appeared in France in the year 1757, the work of Bourdet, a celebrated dentist and elegant writer, in whom the gifts of literary and scientific culture were coupled with a vast experience and a profound spirit of observation. His merits procured him the honor of being appointed dentist to the King.

This author condemns as harmful the use of hard substances (such as bone rings, etc.) that people are in the habit of putting into children’s hands during the period of the first dentition, in the idea that by pressing these objects between the gums, as children instinctively do, they cut their teeth more easily. As to emollients, he holds them to be completely useless, and prefers to all these remedies the use of lemon juice.

According to Bourdet, the teeth are so apt to decay, partly because of the frequent changes of temperature to which they are exposed, and partly because, differently from the bones, they are not provided with any protective organic covering.

In many cases of caries, Bourdet extracted the tooth, filled it with lead or gold leaf, and replanted it; but if, in extracting, the alveolus had been somewhat injured (a thing very likely to happen with the instruments of the period), he replanted the tooth immediately, to preserve the alveolus from the damaging action of the air, and carried out the stopping at a later time.

Even in certain cases of violent toothache not depending on caries, Bourdet luxated the tooth and replaced it in position directly. But as some dentists had accused him of having passed off as new an operation already made known by Mouton since the year 1746, Bourdet defended himself by saying that whilst Mouton only shook the tooth, raising it a little, simply to distend the nerve, he, instead, effected a complete luxation, in order altogether to interrupt the continuity of the nerve. Anyhow, this operation was not new, as it had already been recommended and practised by Peter Foreest, in the sixteenth century, and in an even more remote epoch by the Arabian surgeon Abulcasis.

Sometimes, when the permanent canine comes forth, it has not room enough, and therefore grows outward. In this case Bourdet extracts the first premolar; the canine then advances gradually of itself toward the space left by the extracted tooth, until it occupies its place exactly. He also counsels the extraction of the first premolar on the opposite side of the jaw, in order to preserve the perfect symmetry of the dental arch on both sides. When the arch formed by the jaws is too large and of an ugly appearance, Bourdet advises extracting the first upper and lower premolars, so that the maxillary arches may acquire a more regular form. In cases in which the defect of form exists only in the lower jaw, that is, in children who have protruding chins, Bourdet corrects this deformity by extracting the first lower molars shortly after their eruption, that is, toward seven years of age. In this manner, says the author, the lower jaw grows smaller and the deformity disappears. The inventor of this method, as Bourdet himself tells us, was the dentist Capuron.

Bourdet made prosthetic pieces, whose base, representing the gums and the alveoli, was made entirely of gold and covered over with flesh-colored enamel on the outside, so as to simulate the natural appearance of the gums; the teeth were adjusted into the artificial alveoli and fixed with small pins. At other times he made use of a single piece of hippopotamus tusk, in which he carved not only the base, but also the three back teeth on each side, whilst the ten front teeth were human teeth fixed to the base with rivets.

One of Bourdet’s principal merits is that of having brought artificial plates to perfection by fixing them not, as heretofore, to the opening of the palate or inside the nose, but by means of lateral clasps fitted to the teeth.

In a special pamphlet, published in 1764, Bourdet treats of the diseases of Highmore’s antrum. To facilitate the exit of pathological humors from the sinus, after the Cowper operation, he introduced a small cannula, forked at one end, into the antrum and fixed the two branches of the fork to the neighboring teeth by tying.

In some diseases of the maxillary sinus (polypus, sarcoma, etc.) Bourdet recommends cauterizing.

Besides his principal work, the pamphlet on the diseases of Highmore’s antrum, and some others of less importance, Bourdet wrote an excellent book on dental hygiene, which had the honor of two translations, one German, the other Italian; the latter published in Venice in 1773.

This celebrated author inveighs bitterly against charlatans and quack dentists, and throws light on all their impostures. It appears, however, that in the midst of this despicable class, so justly condemned by him, there existed a courageous though unscientific operator, to whom posterity would have attributed due honor had his name been handed down, for he was the first, in all probability, to try the implanting of teeth in artificial alveoli. This is, at least, what we deduce from a passage in one of Bourdet’s works, in which we read that a charlatan sought to impose on the public the belief that he could make a hole in the jawbone and plant therein an expressly prepared artificial tooth, which in a brief space of time would become perfectly firm and as useful as a natural one. Bourdet adds that an attentive investigation led to the recognition of the said tooth being simply that of a sheep. It would appear, therefore, that the operation had been in reality performed, it matters but little whether with the tooth of a sheep or with one of another kind.

JOURDAIN was another eminent writer on dental matters, at this period. Rather than a true surgeon-dentist like Fauchard and Bourdet, Jourdain was a general surgeon who had dedicated himself with particular predilection to the study and treatment of oral and maxillary diseases. And precisely for this reason his writings, although of great scientific importance, are far from possessing for dental art, properly so-called, the same value as the works of Fauchard, Bourdet, and other great dentists of the eighteenth century. His works, as Geist-Jacobi justly observes, give us the impression of his having been a theorist rather than a practical dentist.

In 1759 Jourdain described in the Journal de Médecine an improved pelican and another instrument to be used for straightening teeth inclined inward. Two years later he published his treatise on the diseases of Highmore’s antrum and on fractures and caries of the maxillary bone. After this, appeared his book on the formation of the teeth. He therein describes with great accuracy the dental follicle from its first appearing to the moment of birth, following it throughout its evolution. This lengthy book is most interesting, for it is not a mere compilation, but gives the results of personal research and experience. But by far the most important of all the works of this author is his treatise on the diseases and surgical operations of the mouth. This book went through several French editions, was translated into German in 1784, and has had, besides, two English editions in America of comparatively recent date, that is, at Baltimore in 1849, and at Philadelphia in 1851; all of which proves the great value of the work; it treats, however, much more of general surgery of the mouth and neighboring regions than of dental art properly so called. The first volume of 626 pages is almost entirely dedicated to the diseases of the maxillary sinus, which, for this author, were ever the object of favorite and particular study. He is not in favor of carrying out irrigation of the antrum through the mouth, even when an alveolar opening has resulted spontaneously through the extraction of a decayed tooth; he prefers instead, whenever this is possible, the reopening of the nasal orifice, by means of sounds and cannulæ adapted for the purpose, that is, varying in thickness and in length, and curved according to the necessities of the case. The natural opening of the antrum being reëstablished, one irrigates the cavity through it by means of a cannula to which a small syringe has been screwed. When the teeth are sound, notwithstanding the diseased condition of the antrum, Jourdain is absolutely contrary to the performing of the Cowper-Drake operation. When, on the contrary, the malady owes its origin to decayed teeth, Jourdain extracts them, but, as already said, carries out the detersive and medicated injections through the natural opening.

The author divides the collections of the maxillary sinus into purulent and lymphatic. The purulent are painful and corrode the bone, the lymphatic are not painful and do not corrode the bone, but distend and soften it, producing external tumefaction which yields to pressure, and, on this being diminished, gave out a characteristic sound. These so-called lymphatic gatherings referred to by Jourdain are none other than mucous cysts of the maxillary sinus. Also the other diseases of Highmore’s antrum (polypi, etc.) are taken by this author into attentive and minute consideration.

The second part of the work is dedicated to the other diseases of the maxillary bones (especially of the inferior one), as well as to those of the lips, cheeks, salivary ducts, gums, frenum linguæ, etc. Dental hemorrhage and difficult dentition are also spoken of in this volume.

The author relates, with regard to the latter subject, that he had observed, in corpses of infants who had succumbed to a difficult dentition, that the crowns of the erupting teeth were covered by the alveolar margins folded upon them. This, according to him, must be the reason why even lancing of the gums proves useless in some cases of difficult dentition; it is therefore necessary, whenever it is possible to recognize the existence of this state of things, to destroy the bony margins that oppose the erupting of the teeth; the author declares that he has frequently done this, with fortunate results.

In 1784 Jourdain published a treatise on artificial dentures. He therein specially speaks of a complete denture with four springs, perfectly adapted to the purpose of mastication. The author attributes the merit of its invention to MASSEZ, who had imagined it toward 1772. If we may judge, however, by what Joseph Linderer says, this denture appears to have been too complicated, even when compared with those described by Fauchard.

LAMORIER and RUSSEL, contemporaries of Jourdain, also studied the diseases of the maxillary sinus, and published in the Mémoires de l’Académie de Chirurgie, vol. iv, several important cases of polypi and other diseases of the antrum. Lamorier is not in favor of the Cowper-Drake operation. He recommends perforating the antrum immediately above the first molars, or rather between it and the malar bone. In this he seems to have been influenced by the considerations that the wall of the cavity here presents the least thickness, and that this is the most dependent part of the sinus. But he did not always deem it necessary to make a perforation here, when a fistulous opening had previously formed in some other place. His method of operating is as follows: The jaws being closed, the angle of the mouth is drawn outward and slightly upward with a curved instrument called by the author a speculum; this done, the gum is incised below the molar apophysis and the bone laid bare, and then pierced with a spear-pointed punch. The opening is afterward enlarged if found necessary.

Several contributions to the knowledge of the diseases of the maxillary sinus and their treatment were made about this time by Beaupréau, Dubertrand, Caumont, Dupont, Chastanet, Doublet, David, and especially by Thomas Bordenave, who published an important work on this subject, collecting a great number of clinical cases of great interest. Speaking of the Cowper-Drake operation, he expresses the opinion that the tooth to be extracted is not the same in all cases, for if some one of the teeth situated below the maxillary sinus should either show signs of decay or be the seat of persistent pain, the choice should fall upon that one. If, however, these teeth are all apparently sound, the one should be chosen that, under percussion, is most sensible to pain. In those cases in which the choice is altogether free, Bordenave prefers the extraction of the first large molar, for the double reason that it is generally situated in correspondence to the central part of the cavity, and that it is separated from the antrum by a very thin osseous lamina. In certain cases, the maxillary sinus is divided, by body lamellæ, into various cavities, and then, as one easily understands, it may be necessary to extract more than one tooth for the evacuation of the pathological contents. When the teeth situated below the antrum have fallen out, or have been extracted some time, and their alveoli are in consequence obliterated, it will be better to have recourse to Lamorier’s method. This method may besides be useful, according to Bordenave, either when all the teeth are sound and it would consequently be a pity to sacrifice any of them, or in special cases (such as large polypi of Highmore’s antrum, extraneous bodies, etc.) in which the Cowper-Drake operation would not afford sufficient space.

L. B. LENTIN, a German, in 1756, published a pamphlet in which he recommended electricity as a means of cure for toothache. Other writers recommended the use of the magnet, which means of cure had already been advised for various affections by Patacelus. During the latter half of the seventeenth century, Talbot, J. J. Weckes, and P. Borelli related several cures of headache and toothache by the use of the magnet. In the eighteenth century F. W. Klaerich, a medical man in Göttingen, wrote that he had used the magnet advantageously in not less than 130 cases of toothache. We find it recommended later by others, Brunner, and particularly J. G. Teske, who, in 1765, wrote a pamphlet entitled New experiments for the curing of toothache by means of magnetic steel.

He considers the use of the magnet as the most efficacious of all remedies against toothache, and believes its action to be similar to that of electricity.

In the following year, however, the belief in the new means of cure was sensibly shaken by F. E. Glaubrecht, who declared that although the magnet calms or causes the cessation of the pain at first, it returns constantly and with much greater violence. The curing efficacy of the magnet in cases of toothache was highly vaunted in France by Condamine.

PASCH attributes the effects of the magnet to the chill produced in the parts to which it is applied; in proof of this he adduces the fact that if the magnet becomes heated by being kept some time in the hand, it loses its efficacy altogether, whilst on the other side one may obtain the very same beneficial results with a simple steel spatula, just on account of the action of the cold; finally, he adds that the chill produced by the magnet on the affected part explains very well not only the good, but also the bad effects which it produces in many cases, such as increase of the pain, inflammation, tumefaction, and even at times spasmodic contractions. Thenceforth the enthusiasm for the magnetic cure diminished gradually, all the more so inasmuch as that shortly after the celebrated English dentist Thomas Berdmore ridiculed it by placing it in the same class as charms, exorcisms, and other foolish and superstitious means of cure.

ADAM ANTON BRUNNER. One of the most distinguished German dentists in the second half of the eighteenth century was Adam Anton Brunner. His two principal works are the Introduction to the science necessary for a dentist, and the Treatise on the eruption of the milk teeth.

This author falls into various errors with regard to deciduous teeth. According to him they are twenty-four in number, and without roots; but these may develop in those milk teeth which in exceptional cases remain in their places after the period in which they generally are shed.

A milk tooth, says Brunner, ought never to be extracted unless there be manifest signs of the presence of the corresponding permanent tooth, or when it is painful and decayed. Badly grown teeth can often be put in order solely by the pressure of the fingers frequently repeated, but when this is not sufficient, one must have recourse to waxed threads or to special contrivances.

In applying a pivot tooth, he screws the pivot to the artificial crown and perforates the root canal only just sufficiently to admit the other extremity, which he drives in by little strokes of a hammer upon the crown, without its being necessary to use cement. We learn from this author that in his time there were turners and other craftsmen who occupied themselves with dental prosthesis.

Brunner prefers gold for fillings to any other substance whatever.

J. G. PASCH, whose name we have already mentioned, relates the case of a young maidservant becoming suddenly affected with deafness, and who recovered her hearing completely on the eruption of one of her wisdom teeth. From a passage of this author’s we learn that at that time many had recourse to the crushing of the infra-orbital nerve as a cure for certain cases of toothache. He, however, decidedly rejects such a remedy, as it proves for the most part ineffectual and may, besides, produce very serious consequences. This author carried out many experiments as to the effects of acids on the teeth.

C. A. GRÄBNER recommends not deceiving children by extracting their teeth unexpectedly, but rather to persuade them of the necessity of the operation; for by deceiving them one loses their confidence, and in many cases inspires them with an invincible aversion to the dentist.

This author invented a so-called “calendar of dentition,” for the purpose of showing at a glance the period of eruption of each of the deciduous and permanent teeth, and as well for noting down the time at which the various teeth are changed, so as to avoid every possible error in this respect. This calendar consists of a figure or diagram representing the two dental arches, with transversal lines that separate the different teeth one from the other, the relative indications being also given.

The observations of this most sensible and conscientious dentist with regard to the extraction of teeth are worthy of note: “The haphazard pulling out of a tooth is an easy enough thing; the only requisites for doing this are impudence and the audacity natural to the half-starved charlatan. But to carry out the extraction of a tooth in such a manner that, whatever be the circumstances of the case, no disgrace may accrue to the operator or damage to the patient, requires serious knowledge, ability, and prudence.”

RUEFF relates the case of a man, aged forty years, who, having made use of fumigations of henbane seeds to relieve himself of violent toothache, obtained the desired end, but at the same time lost his virile power. He, however, reacquired his force by the care of the author.

THOMAS BERDMORE was the dentist of George III of England, and one of the first and most eminent representatives of the dental art in that country. Before him, no one had had the appointment of dentist to the royal family. In the year 1768 he published an excellent work on dentistry, that was translated into various languages and went through many editions; the last of these appeared in Baltimore in the year 1844, that is, seventy-six years after the first English edition—a splendid proof of the worth and fame of this work.

Berdmore contributed to the progress of dentistry in England not only by his writings, but also by imparting theoretical and practical instruction to many medical students desirous of practising dental art as a specialty. One of these was ROBERT WOOFFENDALE, who went to America in the year 1766, and was the first dentist whose name is there recorded.

Berdmore considers as the principal advantage of the application of single artificial teeth the support they afford to the neighboring ones. Although in no way an impassioned partisan of dental grafting, like his contemporary, the celebrated surgeon Hunter, he, nevertheless, sometimes had recourse to replantation, recognizing the advantages to be derived from this operation, provided it be ably and opportunely carried out; but he was decidedly averse to transplantation. Before definitely inserting a gold filling, Berdmore considers it a good practice to try the tolerance of the tooth with a temporary filling of cement or some other like substance. His experiments as to the action of acids on the teeth are most interesting. He found that nitric acid destroys the enamel in a quarter of an hour; muriatic acid acts almost as rapidly, but with the difference that it also alters the color of the interior parts; sulphuric acid renders the teeth very white, and, even if used for three or four days, only destroys a small portion of the dental substance, but by reason of its action the enamel becomes rough and can be easily scraped away with a knife. Remarkable experiments on this subject were also made later by Kemme.

PIERRE AUZEBI, a dentist at Lyons, published a treatise on odontology in 1771, which is only remarkable for certain strange ideas that he therein exposes, the entire book being in complete contradiction with the great progress already realized, at that period, in dental science. Auzebi likens the human body to a hydraulic machine, formed by the union of solid and liquid parts. For him the bones are merely folded membranes and the teeth are bones composed of small membranes. The author declares that he is unable to admit the theory of germs in the genesis of the teeth because “these germs, being all in identical conditions as to heat and moisture, ought all to develop at the same time like the grains of corn in a field.” Rather than having their origin from special germs, the teeth, he says, are derived from lymph, this being, according to Auzebi, the fundamental substance from which all the hard parts of the body are generated. A drop of lymph gathered at the bottom of the alveolus hardens and constitutes the first beginning in the formation of the teeth. Beneath this other lymph is gradually collected, which pushes upward and the part of the tooth already formed, surrounds the dental vessels, and thus becomes the root of the tooth. To facilitate dentition he recommends, among other things, rubbing the gums with hard, rough, and angular bodies. He also maintains, as does Brunner, that the milk teeth have no roots, contradicting, in this respect, the opinion of Fauchard, of Bunon, of Bourdet, who decidedly affirm that the deciduous teeth are furnished with roots, precisely the same as the permanent ones. According to him, when it so happens that the milk teeth have roots, they are not shed. To calm toothache, the author recommended a sedative elixir, the aspirating of a few drops of which sufficed to obtain the desired effect.

JOHN AITKIN, in 1771, perfected the English key, so as to render the extraction of the teeth easier and to avoid the danger of fracturing the alveolus or the tooth itself, and of injuring the gums.

FRÈRE CÔME, a celebrated French surgeon, also contributed to the perfecting of this instrument.

In 1771-72, Fr. L. Weyland and Henkel recorded some very important cases of diseases of Highmore’s antrum.

W. BROMFIELD, in a collection of surgical observations and cases published in London in the year 1773, also speaks of affections of the maxillary sinus. He says that he has had opportunity of persuading himself that the purulent gatherings of this cavity not unfrequently discharge spontaneously during the night, finding their exit through the natural orifice of the antrum, when the body is in the horizontal position.

JOHN HUNTER, the celebrated surgeon, must be named among the most illustrious champions of odontology in England. He was born February 13, 1728. His first instructor in medical studies was his brother, William Hunter, a scientist of great merit, whose school of anatomy in London was attended by numerous students from all parts of the British Kingdom. Under so excellent a guide John Hunter made rapid progress, and in less than twenty years became the most famous physiologist and professor of surgery of that day. He was surgeon-general to the English army.

His Natural History of the Human Teeth (London, 1771) and his Practical Treatise on the Diseases of the Teeth (London, 1778) initiated in England a new epoch for the dental art, which, abandoning its blind empiricism, began to take its stand on the basis of rigorous scientific observation.

But although Hunter’s merits were great with respect to the scientific development of odontology, we must remember that he was a general surgeon, and not a dentist, and that precisely for this reason he had not, neither could he have, other than a restricted personal experience relative to the treatment of dental diseases. This explains why the anatomical and physiological part of Hunter’s works on the teeth is so far superior to the part concerning practical treatment.

Indeed, in the field of practice, this author often falls into grave contradictions, and is frequently hesitating and uncertain on important points of dental therapeutics.

Hunter gives a very long and detailed description of all the parts constituting the oral cavity and the masticatory apparatus. He sought to establish a scientific nomenclature for the teeth, and in fact the denominations of cuspidati for the canine teeth and of bicuspids or bicuspidati for the small molars originated with him. Hunter says that the enamel of the teeth is a fibrous structure, and that its fibers depart from the body of the tooth like rays. He believes it to be entirely inorganic, as it is absolutely impossible to convert it into animal mucus. The tooth is constituted for the most part by a long mass (it is thus he calls the dentine), which is, however, much harder and denser than any other bone. This part of the tooth is formed of concentric lamellæ, and is vascular, as is proved by the exostosis of the roots and the adhesions that exist at times between the roots and the alveoli. Hunter gives a good description of the pulp cavity and of the pulp itself. He studied odontogeny with great care, as is demonstrated by his special researches on this point. He admits the existence of distinct germs for the enamel and for the dentine. According to him the incisors are formed from three points of ossification, the canines from one, and the molars from three or four. The tooth after its eruption is an extraneous body “with respect to a circulation through its substance, but they have most certainly a living principle by which means they make part of the body, and are capable of uniting with any part of a living body.” The milk teeth, says Hunter, are not shed by a mechanical action of the second teeth, but by an organizing law of Nature. The physiology of the masticatory apparatus is treated by Hunter with great accuracy and most extensively. This author combats, by many arguments, the opinion that the teeth grow continually; he explains the apparent lengthening of those teeth whose antagonists are wanting, by the tendency of the alveoli to fill up, which, however, is not possible in normal conditions, because of the constant pressure exercised upon the teeth by their antagonists.

Caries, says Hunter, is a disease of altogether obscure origin; it is not owing to external irritation or to chemical processes, and seems to be a morbid form altogether peculiar to the teeth. Only in very rare cases does it attack the roots of the teeth. It rarely appears after fifty years of age. Hunter does not admit that this disease may be communicated by one tooth to another. As to its treatment, the caries, if superficial, may be completely removed by filing the decayed part of the tooth before the disease penetrates to the cavity, and its spreading will thus be arrested for a time at least. In cases where the caries penetrates to some depth, without, however, the destruction of the crown of the tooth being so extensive as to render it useless, Hunter believed the best mode of treatment to be extraction and replanting of the tooth after having subjected it to boiling in order to cleanse it perfectly and to destroy its vitality entirely, this being, according to him, the mode of preventing the further destruction of the tooth, which once dead can no longer be the seat of any disease. If, instead, one wishes to have recourse to cauterization of the nerve, it is necessary to reach as far as the apex of the root; which, however, is not always possible. This is a very important point, for no one before Hunter had yet affirmed the necessity of entirely destroying the diseased pulp as an indispensable condition of the success of the filling to be later carried out in order to conserve the tooth.

Hunter is extremely concise when speaking of the filling of teeth; considering the great importance of this argument, his conciseness can only depend on his having had no personal experience in the matter. He considers lead preferable for fillings.

The frequent occurrence of erosion of the teeth, whether of the cuneiform variety or of other kinds, did not escape the attention of this acute observer, but he was not able to give any explanation of it.

In cases of empyema of Highmore’s antrum, Hunter advises the opening of the cavity through the alveolus of the first or second large molar.

Periodontitis is classified by the author among the diseases of the alveolar process. He occupies himself with this affection at great length, seeking to explain the mode in which it is produced. He distinguishes two forms of the disease, according to whether or not there be exit of pus from the alveolus. The alveolar process is, in his opinion, the principal seat of the disease, to which, as a complication, is added the retraction of the gums. For the diseased alveolus the tooth becomes, in a certain manner, an extraneous body, of which it tends to rid itself. The alveolar margins undergo absorption; the bottom of the alveolus tends to fill up, analogously to what occurs after extraction, and the falling out of the tooth ensues as a natural consequence of this process. An altogether similar process, producing the falling out of the teeth, is the normal consequence of senility.

The author considers that the malady in question has as its point of departure an irritation caused by a tooth; and as almost a proof of this he relates a case in which the extraction of the affected tooth, an upper incisor which became too long, and the transplantation of another tooth caused the cessation of the morbid process and the perfect consolidation of the transplanted tooth. However, Hunter does not draw from this isolated case the conclusion that transplantation may be elevated to a method of cure for this malady. Indeed, he says that, so far as is known to him, there is no means of prevention or of cure for it. His treatment, therefore, is merely directed to the curing, in so far as is possible, the phlogistic symptoms, by scarifications of the gum and by the use of astringent remedies. He does not exclude the possibility of a complete recovery, but the mode in which this obtains seems to him as obscure as is the nature of the disease itself.

In speaking of the correction of dental irregularities, Hunter advises not to extract the milk teeth unless this be an absolute necessity. He says, besides, that it is useless to extract any tooth whatever, unless one endeavors at the same time to force the irregular tooth or teeth into their normal position by exercising the requisite pressure upon them. In young subjects the regulating of crooked teeth is an easy matter, because of the softness of the maxillary bone. However, it should not be undertaken before all the bicuspids have come through. To correct protrusion of the upper jaw, the author recommends the extraction of a bicuspid on each side. To regulate the incisors it is sometimes necessary to make them rotate on their axis with the forceps. In certain cases of protrusion of the lower jaw one may have recourse with advantage to the inclined plane.

As a general rule, it is useless to lay bare a tooth with the lancet before extracting it, although in certain cases this may be advantageous in order to render its extraction easier and less painful.

Hunter was a strenuous partisan of replantation and transplantation of the teeth; he made various experiments on animals, and treated this important argument with particular fulness and much better than had been done up to then by others.

In cases of difficult dentition he considered incision of the gums most useful and, if necessary, to be had recourse to several times.

FOUCOU, the French dentist, in 1774, made known a compressor invented by him for arresting hemorrhage ensuing on the extraction of teeth. This instrument, which could be used for either jaw, exercised its pressure not only in a vertical direction, but also laterally, and did not give much inconvenience to the patient. Carabelli, who wrote seventy years later, speaks with praise of Foucou’s compressor, which he considers the best instrument of its kind.

COURTOIS, in his book published in 1775, says that the enamel of the teeth only reaches its perfection of development at twenty to twenty-two years of age, and begins thenceforward to wear away gradually. In speaking of the enamel, he advises avoiding the use of the file as much as possible. This author’s book is interesting for the many important clinical cases it contains.

WILLICH, in 1778, related a most curious case relating to a woman, aged forty years, who had never had her menstrual function, but had, nevertheless, given birth to two children; the extraction of a tooth was followed by an alveolar hemorrhage that lasted an hour; thenceforward, this hemorrhage recurred regularly each month, for the space of eight years.

BÜCKING, in 1782, published a Complete Guide to the Extraction of the Teeth, wherein he minutely describes all the instruments, their use, the position of the operator and of the patient, indicating at the same time the instruments best adapted for the extraction of each tooth. He declares himself averse to the practice of subluxation as a means of cure for toothache, a method which, first recommended by the Arab physician Avicenna, and later, in the sixteenth century, by Peter Foreest, had fallen into oblivion for a long time, and was again brought into credit by two celebrated French dentists, Mouton and Bourdet, the latter of whom relates having had recourse to it successfully in not less than six hundred cases.

Notwithstanding the high authority of this illustrious dentist, Bücking does not consider this method of cure advisable, adducing, however, in support of his opinion, arguments of no great value, viz., that teeth after subluxation continue painful for a certain time, and that they always remain in an oblique position. The method in question, which has the effect of breaking the dental nerve, is, in our opinion, practically equivalent to a replantation, or is, in point of fact, a replantation, when the luxation of the tooth is complete. The arguments that Bücking brings forward against it are futile; the first objection, for the most part, does not subsist, and, in any case, the persistence of pain for a short time would be of small importance compared with the great advantage of preserving the tooth; as to the second, it is to be understood of itself that subluxation performed by means of the pelican (the instrument then used for the operation) would cause the tooth to assume an oblique position; but even supposing it did not straighten up of itself, there could not have been any difficulty for the good dentists of that period in forcing the tooth again into normal position and in maintaining it there. The weak side of the operation consisted rather in the fact of its being probably carried out without due consideration of the dangers resulting from the possible alterations of the dental pulp.

At the time of which we are writing many believed that the enamel of the teeth could be regenerated altogether or in part, and that, therefore, it was of no great consequence that it should be worn away by the use of the file or of abrasive dentifrice powders. Thus, for example, the renowned surgeon Theden expressly recommended such powders, as the best adapted for cleaning the teeth and for freeing them from tartar.

VAN WY, the Dutch surgeon, in 1784, related two cases of regeneration of the maxillary bones; other cases of the same kind were related some years later by Percy and Boulet.

CHOPART and DESAULT recommended, in cases of difficult dentition, the excision of the gum in correspondence with the teeth that are to come out, rather than simple incisions.

Pelican for extracting incisor, canine, and molar teeth (Campani, 1786).]

ANTONIO CAMPANI, of Florence, published in 1786 a treatise on dentistry, very elegantly printed, and illustrated with thirty-six plates very neatly carried out. This book, however, contains nothing of real importance for the development of dentistry.

BENJAMIN BELL, the English surgeon, a contemporary of Hunter, also devoted much attention to diseases of the teeth, and, if it may be argued from the clear and precise manner in which he expresses his opinions on various questions relating to dental pathology and therapy, it would seem that he had much greater experience in this field than the celebrated Hunter.

Pelicans for extracting wisdom teeth (Campani).]

With regard to incision of the gums, in cases of difficult dentition, this author contradicts certain assertions of the German surgeon Isenflamm (1782), who argued that when the tooth is already to be perceived through the gum, the incisions are altogether useless, while if the tooth be still at some depth, the gingival incision will soon close again, so that the cicatrix will render the eruption of the tooth still more difficult. Bell admits, too, that lancing the gum is altogether superfluous when the tooth has pierced the tissue, all the more so that the accidents provoked by the eruption are then generally already passed and gone, but the operation ought, in his opinion, to take place much earlier; and should the wound close again before the tooth has erupted, the gum must be lanced a second time.

Campani’s forceps: The first for molar teeth when loose or after having been shaken with the pelican; the second for deciduous teeth.]

Bell contradicts the opinion of Jourdain and Hunter that the morbid gatherings of Highmore’s antrum are generally consequent upon the closing of the normal opening of the cavity in the middle meatus. In many cases of disease of the maxillary sinus this orifice remains open, the liquid therein collected discharging itself not unfrequently through it, in certain positions of the body. Instead of penetrating into the antrum through the nasal orifice, as Jourdain would have it, Bell advises opening the cavity by Lamorier’s, or, better still, by Drake’s method. Except in special cases, the first or second molar ought to be extracted, but preferably the second. After trepanning the alveolus and emptying the cavity, the opening should be closed with a conically shaped peg to prevent its slipping into the cavity. From time to time the liquid that tends to reaccumulate should be allowed exit, and detersive injections should be made, preferably of lime water.

Two key instruments with changeable hooks (Campani).]

Looseness of the teeth, which in old age may be considered a normal condition, is always a disease when it occurs in youth. In certain cases its cause is unknown, in others it depends on an affection of the gums, either of a scorbutic nature or consequent on an accumulation of tartar.

An instrument especially destined to extract loose bicuspid teeth. The screw in the interior of the instrument allowed the hook to be brought to just the right point in each case (Campani).]

According to Bell, dental caries is generally owing to a bad condition of the humors of the entire body and to a peculiar morbid disposition, rather than to external causes acting locally, although these latter may contribute, together with the general causes, to the producing of the disease.

Campani’s dental cauteries: The large ones for cases of post-extractive hemorrhage; the small ones for the cauterization of carious cavities.]

This author was decidedly averse to the use of the file. For stopping carious cavities he advises the use of mastic, gum lac, or wax, if the cavity is large and funnel-shaped; this stopping, however, requires to be renewed frequently. But when the cavity, wider at the bottom, narrows toward the surface, one ought to use gold or, still better, tin-foil. The pulp ought always to be destroyed previously by cauterization.

Bell advises great caution in carrying out transplantation, it having been proved by many examples that contagious maladies of a serious nature may easily be communicated in this way from one individual to another.

In the case of a young woman who had an upper incisor transplanted, WATSON observed undoubted symptoms of syphilitic infection with supervening accidents of exceptional gravity, which in spite of careful treatment ended in death.

Hunter also relates having observed, in seven cases of transplantation, very serious accidents which, however, he did not believe to be owing to syphilis, although bearing a certain symptomatic resemblance to it. Contrariwise, the well-known German surgeon Richter not only admitted the possibility of transmitting syphilis through a transplanted tooth, but even that the transplantation of an altogether healthy tooth from the mouth of a person undoubtedly free from syphilis might be followed by serious accidents of a syphilitic nature, and this because the possible existence of a latent syphilis in the person to whose mouth the tooth was transplanted cannot be excluded; in which case the abnormal stimulus exercised by the transplanted tooth might very well give rise to syphilitic manifestations. Therefore, the fact that the person who furnished the tooth was and continued to be in a state of perfect health (as precisely in the case cited by Watson) would not be sufficient proof that the accidents ensuing on the transplantation might not be of a syphilitic nature.

LETTSON also observed, in certain cases of transplantation, accidents of more or less gravity which he held to be due to syphilis, calling, however, to mind a case cited by Kuhn, of Philadelphia, where the possibility of syphilis was not to be thought of, as the morbid symptoms disappeared entirely, without any treatment, as soon as the transplanted tooth was removed.

AUGUST G. RICHTER, the above-named German surgeon, in those portions of his work dedicated to dental affections and diseases of Highmore’s antrum, treated these subjects with admirable clearness and order, without contributing, however, anything original to the development of dental surgery.

NICHOLAS DUBOIS DE CHEMANT, in 1788, of whom we shall later have occasion to speak again, published in Paris his first pamphlet on mineral teeth, entitled Sur les avantages des nouvelles dents, et rateliers artificiels, incorruptibles, sans odeur.

JEAN JACQUES JOSEPH SERRE (1759 to 1830). Among the dentists of the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth, a special mention is due to Jean Jacques Joseph Serre. He was born at Mons, in Belgium, but his remarkable practical and scientific activity was chiefly called into exercise in Vienna and in Berlin. He published several works, the most important of which is a practical treatise on dental operations.

Among his minor works, one edited in Vienna, in 1788, treats of toothache during pregnancy; another, printed in Leipsic in 1791, treats most extensively of diseases of the gums; a third speaks of the mode of maintaining the teeth and gums in good condition. This little book of dental hygiene, like the rest of Serre’s books, met with great favor, and went through two editions in a brief space of time (Berlin, 1809 to 1812).

The works of this author show great study, very wide practice, and an admirable spirit of observation and research. They had the merit of greatly contributing to raise the level of dental culture in Germany, and one finds in them a pretty nearly complete account of the dentistry of that period. Apart from this, they possess a special interest because of the vast number of dates and important historical facts therein contained.

As it would be useless here to enter into a minute analysis of the contents of these books, we will limit ourselves to mentioning a few ideas of which Serre was a strenuous supporter.

He combats an old prejudice that had recently been reinforced by the authority of Jourdain, that is, that it does harm to extract a tooth when the soft parts around it are inflamed and swollen. He likewise combats the prejudice, also of very ancient date, that teeth ought not to be extracted during pregnancy. Only, he considers it as well to avoid the cauterization of the dental pulp in cases of gestation. In extracting teeth, the forceps ought only to be used after the tooth has been luxated by means of the pelican. Serre highly approves of this instrument, although he recognizes it to be a dangerous one in the hands of those who do not know how to make a proper use of it. This author invented or perfected various extracting instruments, among which a conical screw for extraction of roots hollowed out by caries deserves particular mention, and which, under a somewhat modified form, is still in use.

One of the most interesting chapters of Serre’s great work is the one in which he treats of affections of Highmore’s cavity. He speaks at length of the anatomy of the maxillary sinus, of its relation to the teeth situated below it, of the various modes in which the diseases of the antrum are produced, of their symptoms and treatment. He passes in review the various operative methods, and finds that in general the Cowper-Drake is the one to be preferred to all the others. He says that to open the sinus the simple extraction of a molar suffices in the greater number of cases, the trepanning of the alveolus not being generally necessary.

J. ARNEMAN, in 1766, published at Göttingen a synopsis of surgical instruments that deserves mention in so far that the dental instruments of that time as well as those of earlier periods are therein taken into account with sufficient exactness.

A. F. HECKER attributed the accidents of difficult dentition to a special alteration of the saliva caused by the irritation deriving from the erupting teeth. In these cases the saliva is supposed by him to acquire a high degree of acridness and to become almost similar to the poison of rabies. Departing from this theory, the author declares it to be necessary to mitigate the irritation produced on the gums and other parts of the mouth by the altered condition of the saliva, as well as to modify the quality of the saliva itself and to promote the elimination of the same from the body by emetics and aperients. According to him, liquid carbonate of potash administered in drops, together with syrup of poppy heads, manna, etc., is a most useful remedy, having specially for its effect to diminish the acridness of the saliva.

Besides this remedy, the author extols the use of blisters behind the ears, as also of tepid baths, which calm pain and spasms, favor the excretions, and procure repose and sleep. He rejects the incision of the gums as altogether useless, and is most opposed to the use of opium, which he states renders children liable to apoplexy.

And here we will mention, rather by way of curiosity than for any real historical interest which they possess, two pamphlets on odontitis, published respectively in 1791 and 1794 by Ploucquet and Kappis, who maintained that not only the dental pulp, but all the parts that form the tooth are susceptible of inflammation. In Kappis’ pamphlet we find the following ideas developed, upon which we do not think necessary to comment. The inflammatory process consists essentially in the increased flow of humors to a given part and in a more or less intense reaction of the vital force. Both of these things may take place in the teeth. These are liable to swell, that is, to undergo an increase of all their dimensions, in proof of which assertion the author relates the case of an individual, who when attacked by a violent toothache had found the spaces between his teeth so narrowed that it was no longer possible to make use of his usual toothpick, even if he had tried to do so regardless of pain. But when the toothache was over, the same toothpick again became serviceable as before. He says that there is no cause for wonder that in odontitis no redness of the teeth is to be perceived, for in other inflammations as well, redness is wanting, and, moreover, it exists in the interior membrane of the tooth. As in other inflammations, so also in odontitis, the usual issue is resolution. Dental fistulæ may derive from internal suppuration. The impurities deposited on the teeth are by him supposed to be owing to an increase of their secretion! According to the author, caries, the breaking down of teeth apparently healthy, as well as their falling out, is generally caused by an inflammation of these organs, that is, by odontitis, an affection that, he says, may be of very varied kind, the principal forms being the rheumatic, arthritic, sympathetic, and gastric.

RANIERI GERBI. In a book by this author we find recommended a very singular cure for toothache, even of the most violent nature. It is in no way scientific, and is besides not particularly pleasant, notwithstanding that the author, professor at the University of Pisa, was a scientist of merit, enjoying special esteem as a mathematician and cultivator of natural sciences.

Under the name of curculio anti-odontalgicus he describes an insect living habitually inside the flowers of the carduus spinosissimus, that could be used with great advantage against toothache, in the following manner: One crushes fourteen or fifteen larvæ of the insect between the thumb and forefinger, and then rubs the two fingers together until the matter remaining upon them is entirely absorbed. Instead of the larvæ (which, as is known, represent the first stage of insect life) one may also use the fully developed insects. One then applies the two fingers that have crushed the insects or their larvæ upon the decayed and aching tooth. If the pain is of a nature to be cured by this means, it diminishes almost instantaneously, and ceases altogether in a few minutes. It is said that the fingers preserve their healing power for a great length of time, even a whole year, and in proof of these assertions Ranieri Gerbi speaks of no less than six hundred cures performed! Other insects besides the curculio anti-odontalgicus, used in the same manner, are said to possess the same curative properties, among them the curculio jaceæ, carabus chrysocephalus, and the curculio Bacchus, which last, says Gerbi, has long been used for this purpose by the peasants of Tuscany. The author also says that some German doctors and naturalists experimented with success with several insects indigenous to Germany as remedies against toothache. These insects, also mentioned in a work published in Bayreuth in 1796, author unknown, are: the coccinella septempunctata, the coccinella bipunctata, the carabus ferrugineus, the chrysomela sanguinolenta, the chrysomela populi, the cantharis or Spanish fly, and others. Later on, Hirsch also extolled the healing power of another insect, the cynips rosarum. With regard to the mode of application, Gerbi says that instead of crushing and rubbing these insects or their larvæ between the fingers, one can use a piece of wash leather in a similar manner.

It is to be observed, however, that the insects that are found generally in the ripe wild teasle—or more precisely their larvæ—had already been used for a long time as a remedy against toothache; indeed, we even find these means of cure recommended in the natural history of Pliny. In a book entitled Histoire d’un voyage aux îles Malouines fait en 1763 et 1764, by a certain Dom Pernetty, this author speaks of some remedies made known to him by the Superior of the Franciscan friars of Montevideo; and among others one finds the following: “One draws out the worm that is generally found in the head of the fuller’s teasle when this is ripe. One rolls this worm between the index finger and the thumb, lightly pressing it until it dies of languor. The one or the other of the two fingers applied on the aching tooth will have the virtue, for a year at least, of making the toothache cease.”

HEINRICH CALLISEN, in an excellent treatise on surgery published at Copenhagen in 1788, writes at sufficient length and with great accuracy on dental and maxillary diseases. According to this writer, it rarely suffices to trepan one alveolus for the treatment of the morbid collections of Highmore’s antrum, as the maxillary sinus is very often divided by partitions into various cells, so that in order to give exit to the pus contained in each of them, it is necessary to extract several teeth and trepan their alveoli. One ought not, therefore, to give the preference to this method, unless in the case of the teeth in question being decayed. But should they all be in a good state, or should a large opening be necessary because of the nature of the disease in the cavity, it will be better to follow Lamorier’s method, that is, to incise the gum crosswise under the malar process and then, after scraping away the periosteum, trepan the bone. Further, in the case of the disease in the maxillary sinus having given rise to tumefaction, softening of the bone, and fluctuation in the palatine region, it is precisely there that the perforation ought to be carried out. To prevent the reclosing of the opening before the cure is completed, the author advises the use of pledgets, small bougies, a piece of prepared sponge, or even a small tube. According to Callisen, the injections through the nasal orifice of the maxillary sinus are partly impracticable, and partly of no utility.

It always does more harm than good to file or to scrape the decayed part of a tooth, without stopping it afterward, as by thus doing, says the author, one only renders it still more liable to the access and the action of harmful external influences. In preparing the cavity for stopping, the bottom of it should be more ample than its external aperture, that the filling may remain firm.

For extracting molars, he makes use either of the pelican or of the key; for the incisors and the canines, of the forceps; and for roots, of the goat’s foot.

Callisen treats incipient idiopathic epulis by destroying it through cauterization, after having covered the teeth with wax; if the epulis be large and more or less hard, he removes it with the bistoury; as to symptomatic epulis, he holds the removal of the original cause to be the best mode of treatment.

This author declares himself decidedly in favor of replantation and transplantation, expressing the idea that these methods are always to be preferred to the application of artificial teeth. He maintains that after a tooth has been replanted, and its consolidation has taken place, there is no possibility of any further pain, the nerve being broken. The author relates a brilliant cure which he carried out upon a lieutenant, who, during the siege of Copenhagen, had received a blow that had sent all his front teeth into his mouth. Callisen immediately put them all back in their places with such ability that they became perfectly firm again. With reference to transplantation, he only believes in its being possible for teeth with a single root.

In works published toward 1790, Lentin and Conradi, devoted their particular attention to the morbid conditions that produce looseness and spontaneous falling of the teeth. For the treatment of these conditions Conradi recommended general and local remedies. The general remedies were directed to the suppressing of acridness in the blood, which he considered to be an etiological element of primary importance. As to the local remedies, they ought specially to consist in keeping the teeth clean by the use of a toothbrush, in painting the gums with tincture of catechu and myrrh, and in rinsing the mouth frequently with a decoction of cinchona or of willow bark. Against toothache caused by caries, he particularly advises essence of cloves, introduced into the carious cavity on a piece of cotton-wool.

FRIEDRICH HIRSCH was much less disposed than were many of the preceding writers to incision of the gums in cases of difficult dentition. Against the accidents connected with this morbid condition, he prefers, in general, the use of gentle aperients or of emetics, and regards the scarification of the gums as opportune only in cases where symptoms indicating a high degree of nervous tension manifest themselves.

Against incipient caries, Hirsch used simple cauterization, which he held to be capable of arresting the morbid process, at least in many cases. He says, however, that when a real carious cavity exists, it is absolutely necessary to stop it; and for this purpose, rather than metallic or resinous fillings, he prefers a cement of turpentine and quicklime, made into a paste with varnish of oil of linseed. Nevertheless, when it is a case of the lower teeth, tin-foil is also, according to him, an excellent filling material.

Like some of the preceding authors, Hirsch admitted the existence of interior caries in apparently healthy teeth, and was the first to indicate a good mode of diagnosticating these occult dental affections. It consists in tapping the suspected teeth with a sound until one finds the one in which the percussion provokes pain, and this will be the diseased tooth. One detaches the gum from the neck of this tooth, and at the point, on the neck itself or on the beginning of the root, where a small protrusion is found, one perforates the tooth with a chisel, or some other fit instrument, so as to penetrate to the interior of it. Through this passage one introduces into the tooth a fine, curved, red-hot sound, repeating the operation several times. Lastly, one fills the cavity with lead; and in this manner the tooth will be cured and no longer painful.

In speaking of the correction of dental anomalies, Hirsch relates a case in which the deformity consisted in the union of two central incisors, which formed one single piece, resembling a paddle, and spoiled the appearance of the face. He divided them with a saw, cauterized the surfaces of the section, scarified the gum, and, to gain a little space, introduced a small wedge, until the gum had grown up within the new dental interstice, thus giving an altogether normal appearance to the part.

It is noteworthy that Hirsch made use almost exclusively of the goat’s foot for the extraction of teeth, of whatever kind they might be, the instrument being rather longer, however, than that ordinarily known by this name, and making his left hand serve as a lever rest.

To arrest strong hemorrhage ensuing from the extraction of teeth, Hirsch used scraped parchment, which he introduced into the alveolus and pressed with force into it by means of a sound; then he superposed compresses and kept the jaws tight together with a bandage passed around the head.

This author, too, was very favorable to replantation. As to transplantation, he says that even when the gum and the alveolus are quite healthy, the individual entirely free from scurvy and syphilis, and not above fifty years of age, the transplanted teeth do not take root perfectly except in an average of one case in three. For carrying out this operation he never made use of teeth extracted from the mouth of a living person, but, on the contrary, he used the teeth of young and healthy subjects who had died a violent death; these were, besides, carefully cleaned before transplanting them, and in this way the author believed the transmission of disease to be nearly impossible.

Full lower set in hippopotamus ivory, with human front teeth; seventeenth century. (From Guerini’s collection.)]

Upper denture in ivory, at the end of the eighteenth century, for a case in which the last molars and the front teeth were present. (From Guerini’s collection.)]

J. E. WICHMANN combated energetically the practice, then pretty general, of endeavoring to facilitate the eruption of the teeth by incision of the gums. He considered this practice as one to be absolutely rejected, supporting his opinion on the consideration that dentition, being an altogether physiological process, which, moreover, takes place in parts relatively of but little importance, never can give rise of itself alone to serious accidents. Besides this, he says, it is very difficult to say which tooth precisely is about to erupt and at what point. The incisions would, therefore, have to be made by chance, which would often render the morbid condition still more serious.

K. A. BLUMENTHAL endeavored to confute Wichmann’s opinions, with but little success; for, indeed, the same opinions, expressed later by J. H. Sternberg in a more detailed manner and with ampler views of the subject, met with ever-increasing approval. Thenceforth, the practice of gingival incisions in cases of difficult dentition fell more and more into discredit.

ROBERT BUNON, the French dentist, is one of the most illustrious personalities to be met with in the history of our profession. He was born at the beginning of the eighteenth century, and devoted himself betimes to the dental art, gathering instruction therein partly from different dentists and partly from the few odontological books he was able to find. In this manner he learned pretty much all that was known at that time by dentists in general. He then decided to travel, in order to acquire further knowledge and experience. He practised especially in the north of France and in what is now the state of Belgium; at Antwerp, Brussels, Givet, Maubeuge, Cambrai. In his ardent thirst for knowledge, when he happened to pass through a town where some dentist of note resided, he never neglected to call on him, thus acquiring fresh information and perfecting himself as well in the practical exercise of his profession. At the same time, his desire to learn all that was new concerning dental art and science was so intense that he had translations made of the medical and surgical works of Latin, Italian, German, and English authors. However, all this reading, although it enlarged his general knowledge, taught him nothing, or almost nothing, about those subjects that interested him above all the others. His practical experiences, meanwhile, brought a great number of patients to his notice, and, being by nature a very acute observer, he was able to establish the existence of many facts up to then unknown. At this time he commenced his studies on dental erosion, on the development of the teeth, and on the prophylaxis of dental maladies, his favorite subject. “I felt,” he writes, “that the necessity of having recourse day by day to the extraction of teeth resulted from deficient knowledge on our part, and I considered this extreme remedy as one of the greatest evils to humanity.” He therefore endeavored to extend his own knowledge in every possible way, and as one means of doing this he visited hospitals and schools; and, ardent champion as he was of conservative dentistry and of prophylaxis, he succeeded in interesting medical men and surgeons, midwives and schoolmasters, and parish priests as well, in the question of the preservation of the teeth. The teeth he extracted he kept for the purpose of studying the conformation, the lesions, the dental anomalies; sometimes he split them up to examine the dental pulp. And he never neglected an opportunity of procuring anatomical pieces that appeared interesting to him.

In 1728 Fauchard’s book, Le Chirurgien Dentiste, appeared. The fame of this work reached Belgium, where Bunon then was, and he immediately set about trying to get a copy of it. After searching in various towns, he finally found one in Givet. He read it with the greatest interest, and later, in one of his works, spoke of it in terms of highest praise. It would seem, however, that he did not learn much that was new to him by reading this book, which proves that he already possessed a vast odontological culture and was also profoundly versed in technical dentistry, which forms the most important part of Fauchard’s book. He was somewhat astonished at finding in this celebrated author’s work hardly anything on the subjects that principally interested him, that is, the erosion, the development of the teeth, and the prophylaxis of caries. This circumstance very clearly reveals the different mental tendencies in these two great men, the one, drawn toward the practical side of the profession which principally interests him and forms the basis of his work, the other, an impassioned searcher into causes, and student of prophylaxis.

After the perusal of Fauchard’s book, Bunon, who had already conceived the idea of publishing the results of his observations and of his own particular studies, felt more than ever the propriety and necessity of doing so; and to realize his idea, he established himself toward the year 1735 at Paris. Two years later, just when the manuscript of his work was almost finished, Gerauldy’s book appeared. Bunon relates that he opened this book in fear and trembling; its title, The art of preserving the teeth, gave him reason to fear that Gerauldy might have profited by some of the ideas and observations he had communicated to various persons, to write a book similar to the one that he himself had it in his mind to publish. He was able, fortunately, to convince himself immediately that his fears of being forestalled and plagiarized were unfounded.

Notwithstanding, Bunon was determined not to publish his book until the opportune moment and with all possible probability of success. With this object in view, he made up his mind first to obtain the diploma of surgeon-dentist. To reach this aim, he was obliged to conform to the regulations of the Edict of May, 1699, which then regulated the practising of dentistry, and this was as much as to say that he was obliged to enter the College of Surgery, to undertake two years’ practice with a regularly licensed surgeon, to undergo theoretical and practical examinations, and to take oath before the Chief Surgeon of the Realm. Once in possession of the diploma of surgeon-dentist, he was separated thenceforward from the vulgar crowd of charlatans and invested with all the prestige which a degree, so rarely acquired at that time, conferred upon its possessor; but before facing public opinion he desired to make himself known, and, so to say, first to try his ground, by making known some of his newer ideas, and see what reception they might meet with from his colleagues and the public in general. He, therefore, published, in January, 1741, in the newspaper Mercure de France, a letter on the so-called eye tooth, combating the then widely diffused prejudice that the extraction of an upper canine constituted a grave peril to the eye. He demonstrated the absurdity of this idea by putting in evidence the anatomical fact that the upper canines are innervated by the infra-orbital nerve, which has no relation whatever with the visual organ.

Still better to further his object of making himself a name, he published in the same year and in the aforementioned paper his dissertation on the teeth of pregnant women. There he demonstrated the falseness of the idea that one ought never to extract teeth during the state of gestation, and brought into relief the necessity of treating the dental diseases of pregnant women with still more accuracy than those of other persons.

These publications, bearing as they did the marks of good sense, favorably interested the public opinion. The way was therefore prepared, and Bunon judging the moment to have come for publishing his work, placed it in the hands of a literary man for the necessary corrections of style. He also showed his manuscript to several persons of consideration, but was grieved to perceive that the new ideas put forward in it were skeptically received. He now thought it might be as well to appeal to the judgment of a highly competent authority, and fixed on M. de la Peyronie, Head Surgeon of the Realm. This gentleman, after reading the work, highly praised the author, and Bunon gained permission to publish the book under his patronage, on consideration that he should give his word to furnish the proof of the many assertions made therein on all kinds of subjects.

The goal was now reached, and Bunon, on the strength of such illustrious patronage, published his book in March of 1743, under the title, Essay on the maladies of the teeth, wherein are suggested the means of obtaining their good conformation from the earliest age, and of assuring their preservation during the whole course of life.

All the principal journals of the time (Journal des Savants, Journal de Trévoux, Journal de Verdun, Mercure de France, etc.) published extracts from the book and eulogized the author, who had even the high satisfaction of receiving an honorable mention from the Royal Academy of Surgery, in the public sitting held in 1743.

Bunon, therefore, was now famous, and had, besides, gained wealthy clients, as we see from the perusal of his observations, where the best names in France are to be met with, put in evidence by him without the least thought of professional secrecy. He could now enjoy his well-merited successes, in accordance with the thought expressed by him in one of his books: “All those who labor for the progress of an art have legitimate right to the honor and to all the recompenses to which success is entitled.”

The study of Bunon’s work proves, in fact, that he had good right to be proud of having written it. The mere perusal of it, however, does not suffice to enable the reader to judge of its merits, for to do this properly, it is necessary to study at the same time his other book, published in 1746, entitled Experiences and demonstrations made at the Hospital of Salpêtrière and at St. Côme, before the Royal Academy of Surgery, serving as continuation and proof to the Essay on the maladies of the teeth. The essay is, in fact, a small 12mo book of 212 pages, written in a concise style, and, strange to say, most concise in the most important points.

Many facts of great moment are given under the form of rapid indications, or of assertions without proof; thus their importance is apt to pass completely unobserved by those who do not take the trouble of studying this work thoroughly and with the help of the explanations, illustrations, and comments contained in the second book we have referred to.

M. A. Barden, of the École Odontotechnique of Paris, was the first to undertake a serious and conscientious study of Bunon’s works. By so doing he has thrown full light on the author’s great merits, and brought forward the high scientific importance of his works.

One of the important questions studied by Bunon concerns the hygiene to be observed in order to obtain the development of a good dentition. On this question he rightly establishes the principle that hygiene and dental prophylaxis should begin from the period of the formation of the milk teeth. He works out this principle with rigorous logic, and finishes by tracing the hygiene of the mother during pregnancy, of the woman (be she mother or nurse) during the nursing period, and of the nursling as well.

As to the accidents of first dentition, Bunon sets forth a highly scientific opinion, fully coinciding with the ideas of modern writers, that is, that dentition is not the sole cause, nor even the principal cause, of such accidents, but simply a coöperating cause. He made the observation that in healthy infants, children of healthy parents and nursed by healthy women, the time of teething is gotten over without difficulty, while serious accidents occur frequently in weak and sickly children not brought up and nourished according to hygienic principles, or born, as not often happens, with special hereditary predispositions.

One of Bunon’s merits is that of having attributed to the first teeth all the importance they really have, and of having insisted on the necessity of attentively curing their maladies. He also drew attention to the dangers that may result from the eventual persistence of the first teeth at the epoch of the second dentition, or from the persistence of their roots after the destruction of the crown by caries. These roots, he says, by their contact with the neighboring permanent teeth may infect them, and cause them to decay.

Bunon’s researches into the development of the teeth enabled him to describe precisely the position that the various teeth of the second dentition occupy in the jaw with regard to the milk teeth, before these are shed.

Bunon was, besides, the first author who studied accurately dental hypoplasia, and it is greatly to his honor that his ideas and observations about this pathological condition have been accepted and confirmed in substance by the greater part of the authors who have come after him, having remarkable worth even at the present day. According to him, this congenital defect of the teeth is owing to infantile maladies, such as hereditary syphilis, infantile scurvy, malignant fevers, smallpox, or measles; the harmful effects of these maladies, however, are limited to the teeth in progress of development, and have no influence on those that have already come forth. Erosion, as this defect was termed by Bunon, sometimes affects the first teeth, but is to be found much more frequently in the second or permanent ones. Those most often affected are the first molars, and in frequency follow the incisors, the canines, the premolars; the second and third molars are the most rarely affected.

Bunon studied with great accuracy the means of preventing anomalous positions of the permanent teeth, owing, according to him, almost always to want of space. In certain cases he advises the extraction of the milk tooth in order to facilitate the eruption of the permanent one, and, necessity urging, he does not hesitate to sacrifice one of the permanent teeth to procure the advantage of a normal position of the others. With regard to this subject, the following passage is worthy of note, for in it we find sketched out the theory of preventive extraction as a means of facilitating the eruption of the wisdom tooth: “It is better to have the teeth incomplete as to number than to have the ordinary number badly arranged; for the mouth will appear none the less well furnished because of having one or two teeth the less; the other teeth will be commodiously distributed, and the last molars will find sufficient room when they come forth; thus, the disorders which these teeth often occasion will be avoided.”

After caries, Bunon considers dental tartar as the most potent enemy to the vitality of the teeth. He distinguishes three principal species: the black, the lemon or light yellow, and the brownish yellow; however, he allows of two other varieties of less frequent occurrence, the red and the green tartar.

At a period when an extraordinary confusion obtained with regard to gingivitis, because of the great number of varieties allowed, Bunon strongly affirms the unity of this morbid process, and considers tartar as the constant cause of it, without denying, however, that other causes of various kinds may contribute at the same time to produce it.

In cases of scorbutic stomatitis, Bunon advises, and very rightly, the complete removal of tartar from the teeth before having recourse to any other local treatment. He also insists on the necessity of attending to the teeth and gums, and especially of freeing the former from tartar before undertaking the specific treatment of syphilis, considering the good state of the teeth and gums as one of the most important prophylactic measures against mercurial stomatitis.

Anyone who takes the trouble of reading Bunon’s works attentively cannot help admiring his depth of insight, his spirit of observation, his exquisite clinical sense, and his ingenuity. As illustrating this last quality of his, we may cite two cases of fracture of the lower jaw that he succeeded in curing in a short time by the method of binding the teeth, the preceding attempts of experienced surgeons having entirely failed. One of these cases is particularly interesting. The seat of the fracture corresponded with the bicuspids, which, however, had fallen out from the effects of trauma; the neighboring teeth were also loosened. Bunon filled the empty space left by the bicuspids with a piece of ivory, provided with two holes; then, by an ingenious crossing of threads passing from the second molar on the one side to the second bicuspid on the other, very tightly tied, he formed, so to speak, one single block, and succeeded in bringing about the consolidation of the shaking teeth and the complete cure of the fracture, which was effected in less than a month.

From an old painting in oil.]

The unfavorable judgments passed on Bunon by some writers result, in a great measure, from the circumstance that one finds quoted in his books certain modes of treatment that today appear positively ridiculous. But those who, very wrongly and with deplorable levity, consider Bunon as nothing more than a vulgar empiric, ought to reflect that even the greatest men cannot altogether avoid the influence of the ideas and the prejudices of their time. Some tribute they are almost fatally bound to pay to these prejudices. It is, therefore, not to be wondered at, if one finds in Bunon’s works, as well as in those of many other old writers, indications given of more or less strange remedies. Thus, as facilitating the eruption of teeth, he recommends among other remedies the rubbing of the gums with a mixture of honey, fresh butter, hare’s brains, and oil of lilies, or with the fat of an old cock, dog’s milk, and pig’s brains. Against the disorders and dangers of the teething period he also advises rubbing the nape of the infant’s neck, the shoulders, the back, and the lower limbs, always taking care, however, to rub from above downward, thus offering opposition to the flow of humors toward the upper parts of the body.

These means and methods of treatment reflect, so to speak, the medical ideas and the curative practices of that time, and come down, in part, from remote ages, as evidently appears from what is said in different parts of this book. But such small blemishes ought certainly not to be taken into account in passing judgment on Bunon’s works, the most substantial part of which is made up of very original ideas and observations. The high intrinsic value of Bunon’s works gives him a just right to be considered one of the most illustrious forerunners of modern scientific dentistry.

BARTOLOMEO RUSPINI, an Italian dentist, exercised his profession in London with great success for more than thirty years. He was patronized by all the greatest personages of the Kingdom and also by the Royal family, from whom he received special marks of distinction. He attained a very conspicuous position, and with the aid of the London Freemasons’ Lodge, of which he was an influential member, but chiefly by the results of his professional work, he was able to found an orphanage that was called by his name, being moved to do this by his great love for children, whose dental maladies and disorders had always been an object of particular study for him. In 1768 he published A Treatise on the Teeth, Their Structure and Various Diseases. This book was remarkably well received and went through a number of editions, the last in the year 1797. Ruspini did not, in reality, contribute very much to the development of dental science. He is, however, to be especially remembered as the inventor of a very good mouth mirror, a means of examination which afterward gradually came into general use.

* * * * *

Having brought our history of dentistry up to the end of the eighteenth century, in order to complete our work we must now speak of an innovation in dental prosthesis, which, although gradually brought to perfection in the following century, was first introduced at that time. We allude to the

INVENTION OF MINERAL TEETH.

The merit of this invention is due, in part, to an individual outside the dental profession, namely, to the French chemist Duchâteau, of St. Germain en Laye, near Paris, who first had the idea of employing porcelain as material for dental prosthesis. However, his idea would not have yielded fruitful results had it not been for the coöperation of the dentist Dubois de Chemant, who succeeded in putting it into practice.

The circumstances connected with this invention were the following: The chemist Duchâteau had for some time worn a denture of hippopotamus ivory, but as usually happened with all the prosthetic pieces of that time, which were made of organic material, and were, therefore, subject to decay, this denture had acquired a very disagreeable odor, resulting from the action of the buccal humors. Besides which, Duchâteau being obliged, by reason of his profession, to continually taste pharmaceutic preparations, his denture had gradually become impregnated with medicinal substances that imparted a nauseous taste to everything he ate. The unpleasantness of this was a subject of much consideration with him, and thus it was that, to remedy the evil, he gradually matured the idea of having a porcelain denture made, on the model of the ivory one. In the year 1774 he applied to the porcelain manufactory of M. Guerhard in Paris for the carrying out of his design. The first trial was not successful, for in the baking the paste contracted so much that the denture was no longer of the right dimensions. To remedy this, he now had another and larger denture made, to allow for its contraction in the baking. But the results did not correspond with his wishes, and many trials were still necessary before Duchâteau was able to obtain a denture which he judged fit for use, although not without defects. As this denture, because of its dead whiteness, produced an unpleasant effect, he had a yellowish tint, resembling that of the natural teeth, given to it, and, as is usual with painting on porcelain, fixed this color by baking a second time.

However, this denture proving unserviceable, Duchâteau was obliged to put it aside and begin new experiments. These were made with a special kind of porcelain paste used in France for the first time in 1740, which vitrified in baking at 12° to 25° by Wedgwood’s pyrometer, whilst the usual porcelain required a temperature of 72° to 75° by the same test; but the results thus obtained were no better than the preceding ones, and upon these new failures Duchâteau applied to the dentist Dubois de Chemant, of Paris, for his collaboration. Together they made fresh attempts, modifying the composition of the paste by adding a certain quantity of pipe clay and other coloring earths to it. These modifications enabled them to carry out the baking of the pieces at a much lower temperature, and after various experiments the final result was a denture that fitted the gums well enough, and which, in point of fact, Duchâteau was able to wear.

Encouraged by this success, he tried to manufacture like dentures for personages of high rank, hoping to gain money thereby, but his want of knowledge of the dental art prevented him from succeeding in his undertaking. However, in 1776 he laid this new process before the Royal Academy of Surgeons in Paris, receiving the thanks of that body as well as an honorable mention.

Whilst Duchâteau, discouraged by failure, was giving up all idea of deriving profit from the practical application of his invention, Dubois de Chemant, on the contrary, did not cease working for a moment, in order to bring the new method of prosthesis to perfection. Little by little he introduced important modifications into the composition of the mineral paste used in the manufacture of the dentures, incorporating therewith Fontainebleau sand, alicant soda, marl, red oxide of iron, and cobalt. His experiments and researches aimed at three principal ends, viz.:

1. The obtaining of mineral teeth offering all the gradations of color presented by natural ones.

2. The arriving at a rigorous calculation of the contraction of the mineral paste in the baking, so as to be able to make prosthetic pieces of the desired form and dimensions.

3. The perfecting of the means of attachment of the prosthetic pieces, and, in particular, of the springs.

By working with intelligence and perseverance, Dubois de Chemant gradually obtained satisfactory results, and when, in 1788, he published his first pamphlet on mineral teeth, he had already made dentures and partial prosthetic pieces for a certain number of persons, who wore them to great advantage.

As to the chemist Duchâteau, from 1776 to 1788, that is, during the twelve years subsequent to his communication to the Academy of Surgeons, he did absolutely nothing at all. He is, therefore, entitled to the credit of having had a happy idea and of having endeavored to put it into practice; but the merit of having given life to the idea, abandoned for so many years by him with whom it originated, is exclusively due to Dubois de Chemant; he is, therefore, with reason considered the true inventor of mineral teeth.

Dubois de Chemant, however, was so unjust as to take the whole credit of the invention for himself, declaring in his writings that the original idea had been exclusively his own, and was in no way due to Duchâteau.

In 1789 Dubois de Chemant made his invention known to the Academy of Sciences and to the Faculty of Medicine of Paris; both pronounced in favor of it, and in consequence of the opinion given by such high authorities, he soon after obtained an inventor’s patent from Louis XVI.

Dubois’ successes now aroused the envy of many of his colleagues, and especially of Dubois Foucou, the king’s dentist, who, together with the greater part of the dentists of Paris and the chemist Duchâteau, brought an action against him, accusing him of having usurped the invention of Duchâteau, and demanding, for this reason, the annulment of the inventor’s patent that had been granted him. But the law courts, in an opinion dated January 26, 1792, rejected the demand for annulment, recognized the patent of invention as fully valid, and condemned Dubois Foucou, Duchâteau, and their confederates to the costs of the judgment.

Paris being at that time in full revolution, Dubois de Chemant was induced to emigrate to England. He established himself in London, and there obtained a patent without much difficulty, according him the exclusive right, for fourteen years, of manufacturing dentures of mineral paste.

Dubois de Chemant wrote several pamphlets in order to make known to the public this new kind of dental prosthesis and its advantages; some of these were published in Paris (1788, 1790, 1824), and others during his long residence in London, where he remained from 1792 to 1817. In these pamphlets he upholds the great superiority of “the incorruptible teeth of mineral paste” over all other kinds of artificial teeth; he calls special attention to the fact that teeth of bone, ivory, and of every other organic substance whatever gradually become spoilt through the action of the saliva, of oral heat, of food and drink, etc., and not only lose their primitive color and assume a dirty hue, most unpleasant to the eye, but acquire a bad odor, at times quite insupportable, becoming, besides, a cause of irritation to the gums and the mucous membrane of the mouth, not to speak of their gradual softening and wearing out, which renders them unserviceable after a certain time. All these disadvantages were avoided by using the new prosthetic material, this being incorruptible and inalterable.

The prosthetic appliances by Dubois de Chemant were made in one single piece that represented the gums and teeth, whether in the case of one or more teeth, or of whole dental sets. He used to take a cast of the parts on which the prosthesis was to be applied, and by a process, the details of which are not known; he succeeded in obtaining prosthetic pieces that fitted the parts perfectly, notwithstanding the difficulties resulting from the shrinking of the paste in baking. If the piece required retouching, he did this by means of special tools for grinding down porcelain. He could, besides, drill holes in the porcelain for the application of the means of attachment. In fact, Dubois de Chemant was the creator of a new method of prosthesis applicable to any and every case, and which gained the praise and admiration of the great doctors and scientists of that day, among whom may be mentioned Geoffroy, Vicq d’Asyr, Descemet, Bajet, Petit Radel, Darcet, Sabatier, Jenner, and others. The Paris Faculty of Medicine gave it as their judgment that the prosthetic pieces manufactured by Dubois de Chemant united the qualities of beauty, solidity, and comfort to the exigencies of hygiene.

These eulogies must, however, be received with a certain reserve, as, beyond doubt, the mineral teeth of that time still left much to be desired. In England, where, as we have already said, they had been introduced by the inventor, they at first obtained a great success, which was, however, of short duration, and Maury tells us that toward 1814 they had fallen into great discredit and had been entirely abandoned; this signifies that practically they did not fulfil the expectations held out.

DUBOIS FOUCOU and FONZI. Among the first who occupied themselves with the manufacturing of mineral teeth, contributing also to their improvement, are to be named Dubois Foucou, to whom we have already made reference, and Fonzi, an Italian by birth, who exercised the profession of dentist in Paris. Dubois Foucou made some improvements in the coloring of porcelain teeth, and in 1808 published a pamphlet in which he explained his mode of proceeding in manufacturing them. In the same year Fonzi made known a new kind of teeth, which he called terro-metallic. These differed from those of Dubois de Chemant in that they were all single teeth intended to be applied on a base by means of small hooks of platina, with which each tooth was furnished. In addition to this important innovation, Fonzi also discovered the means of imitating in some degree the semitransparent tint peculiar to natural teeth.

Notwithstanding this, the teeth made by Fonzi, of which there are still some specimens in various dental museums, had anything but a good appearance, and there still remained much to be done before mineral teeth reached the height of perfection which they attained later on.

Earliest specimens of mineral teeth.]

The credit of having introduced many new improvements in the manufacture of mineral teeth belongs especially to the Americans. Among those who particularly distinguished themselves in this department of dental art, we may note Charles W. Peale, Samuel W. Stockton, James Alcock, and Dr. Elias Wildman. But the most brilliant results, as is well known, were obtained by the celebrated Samuel S. White, who, by an intelligent and persevering activity, dedicated almost exclusively to improving mineral teeth and to bringing them into general use, contributed vastly to the progress of modern dental art. Samuel S. White undoubtedly stands forth as one of the noblest and grandest figures in the history of dentistry, and his name will ever be recorded with honor and veneration by dentists of all ages.

FOOTNOTES:

See Introduction to the German translation of the Ebers’ papyrus, by Heinrich Joachim, Berlin, 1890.

The Egyptians had three different kinds of writing: the hieroglyphic, the hieratic, and the demotic. The hieroglyphic style, which is the most ancient and is chiefly to be found on monuments and in religious texts, consists of figures representing every kind of object; the hieratic or sacerdotal style is an abbreviation of the hieroglyphic writing; the demotic or popular style, the least ancient, resulted from further abbreviations of the hieratic.

See page 185 of the German translation of Dr. Joachim.

See the German translation by Joachim, page 162.

A fruit resembling cherries.

On the Relations of the Human Teeth to those of the Lower Animals, by John R. Mummery. Trans. Odontological Society of Great Britain, May, 1860.

See German translation by Joachim, p. 120.

Herodoti Halicarnassei historia, 1570 fol. Euterpe, page 53.

Herodoti Halicarnassei historia, lib. vi.

Die Zahnheilkunde, Erlangen, 1851, p. 348.

G. B. Belzoni (1778 to 1823), a celebrated Italian traveller and archeologist, visited Egypt and Nubia, and wrote, in English, a report on his discoveries, which was published in 1821. We have not been able to procure this book; we have, however, read the Italian version, published in Naples in 1831, without coming across any mention of artificial teeth found in Egyptian sarcophagi. Therefore, unless the work has undergone some mutilation in the Italian translation, we do not know whence Joseph Linderer can have taken the above notice.

New England Journal of Dentistry, 1883, vol. ii, p. 162.

According to Herodotus and Diodorus, there were three different modes of embalming in use among the Egyptians; the most expensive of these cost one talent (about 5600 francs), the second in order 20 minae (about 1900 francs), while for the less wealthy there was a third class, at a much more economical rate.

See Giornale di Corrispondenza pei Dentisti, October, 1885, p. 227.

Again, at page 63 of the same journal, in an article entitled “Dental Memoranda,” by T. Purland, Dentist, Ph.D., the author says:

“Belzoni and others discovered rudely manufactured teeth in the sarcophagi of the Egyptians. As regards the use of gold leaf, Sir Gardner Wilkinson observes, as a singular fact, that the Egyptians stopped teeth with gold.

“It is true that rudely manufactured teeth have been found in the heads of Egyptian mummies, but it is equally true that teeth of a very superior make and adaptation have also been found, some carved in ivory, others in sycamore wood, and some have been found fixed upon gold plates. Of these varieties, some are deposited in the valuable and extensive museum belonging to Joseph Mayer, Esq., F.S.A., of Liverpool; others are in the museums of Berlin and Paris, and I am in possession of a tooth found pivoted to a stump in the head of a mummy in the collection of a lamented friend.

“Of stopping with gold, several instances have come to my notice, particularly in a mummy in the Salt collection, sold by Sotheby, in 1836, in which three teeth had been stopped. I have endeavored to trace the mummy, but in vain.”—E. C. K.]

Giornale di Corrispondenza pei Dentisti, October, 1885, p. 229.

Geist-Jacobi, Geschichte der Zahnheilkunde, p. 9.

Geist-Jacobi, Geschichte der Zahnheilkunde, p. 9.

Ibid.

Ibid.

The incisors represented in the cut of Renan’s work do not at all give the anatomical form of upper incisors, but of lower ones. Therefore, either the figure itself has been badly drawn, or the piece found by Dr. Gaillardot was part of the inferior and not of the superior jaw. In the latter case, the figure in Renan’s book ought to be reversed, in the manner here shown:

The same figure reversed, as it ought to be if the piece found at Sidon belonged to a lower jaw.]

Examples of dental prosthesis as practised by the Hindus at the present time.]

Neither do we understand on what ground Dr. Gaillardot has based his affirmation of the piece discovered having belonged to a female skeleton, as it is well known that there is no characteristic difference between a male and a female jaw.

Renan, Mission de Phénicie, p. 472.

The number varies according to the different translations. So, instead of the Latin dentes elephantis, we find in English and in other languages the word ivory.

J. Bouillet, Précis d’histoire de la Médecine, Paris, 1883, p. 24.

La médecine chez les Chinois, par le Capitaine P. P. Dabry, Consul de France en Chine, Membre de la Société Asiatique de Paris, 1863.

One of these books, Nuei-King, is said to have been written twenty-seven centuries before the Christian era, by the Emperor Houang-ty, the founder of Chinese medicine.

See Bouillet, work quoted at p. 31.

Dabry, op. cit., p. x (introduction), pp. 1, 2, 4, 10, 11.

This author wrote toward the end of the seventeenth century; one of his works is entitled De Acupunctura.

Dabry, op. cit., p. 424.

See Histoire de la Chirurgie depuis son origine, par MM. Dujardin et Peyrihle, Paris, 1774 to 1780.

London, 1811.

Die Zahnheilkunde, etc., 1851, p. 347.

J. Bontii, De medicina Indorum, 1642, lib. iv.

Carabelli, Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde, 1844, i, 8.

Linderer, op. cit.

Carabelli, loc. cit.

Linderer, loc. cit.

Carabelli, op. cit., p. 17.

The Greek name Asklepios became in the Latin, Æsculapius; the two names are therefore equivalents.

See Cicero, De Natura deorum, lib. iii, chap. xxii.

Praktische Darstellung aller Operationen der Zahnarznei-kunst, von Johann Jakob Joseph Serre, Berlin, pp. 7 to 13.

Guardia, Histoire de la Médecine, p. 250.

Hippocratis opera, Genevæ, 1657 to 1662, De natura hominis, p. 225.

Page 251.

Page 252.

Page 253.

De morbis mulierum, lib. ii, p. 666.

The use of carbonate of lime or chalk as a dentifrice evidently goes back to antiquity.

Unwashed wool—that is, wool not cleansed of the fat secreted by the skins of the animals from whom it is taken—was much in use by the doctors of antiquity. One now obtains lanolin from it.

The obole was about three-quarters of a gram.

The cotyle was a little more than a quarter of a liter.

Page 507.

Page 21.

See Daremberg, Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines, article “Chirurgie.”

The various editions here offer numerous variations, but the sense is everywhere obscure.

See Bouillet, Précis d’Histoire de la Médecine, p. 94.

On Epidemics, lib. ii, section i, p. 1002.

De morbis vulgaribus, lib. iv, p. 1131.

That is a very short root.

Page 1138.

De morbis vulgaribus, lib. v, p. 1157.

Page 1157.

De morbis vulgaribus, lib. vi, section i, p. 1164.

Ibid., vii, p. 1223.

Page 1229.

De morbis vulgaribus, lib. vii, p. 1238.

The title of these seven books of Hippocrates might cause a false idea to be conceived. They do not precisely treat of epidemics in the sense given to the word in the present day; instead, they describe the maladies which predominated during four years, in successive periods of time, according with the variations of the atmospheric conditions. (See Litré, Introduction to the books on Epidemics.)

De morbis vulgaribus, lib. iii, p. 1009; lib. vi, section iii, p. 1176.

De morbis vulgaribus, lib. iv, p. 1138; Aphorisms, lib. iv, No. 53, p. 1251.

Coacæ prænotiones, No. 235, p. 157; Prædictorum, lib. i, No. 48, p. 71.

Coacæ prænotiones, No. 236, p. 157.

Loc. cit., No. 237.

Loc. cit., No. 239.

Loc. cit., No. 241, p. 157; No. 648, p. 222.

De morbis vulgaribus, lib. iii, p. 1083.

Ibid., lib. iv, p. 1121.

Prædictorum, lib. ii, p. 111.

De affectionibus, p. 521.

De internis affectionibus, p. 549.

Paul Dubois, Aide-mémoire du chirurgien-dentiste, Paris, 1894, 2me partie, pp. 415, 416.

Prædictorum, lib. ii, p. 108.

De internis affectionibus, p. 534.

De humoribus, p. 49.

De morbis vulgaribus, lib. ii, section vi, p. 1050.

Prædictorum, lib. ii, p. 96.

De articulis, p. 799.

Loc. cit.

De articulis, p. 800.

Aphorism, lib. v, No. 18, p. 1253.

De liquidorum usu, p. 426.

De locis in homine, p. 419.

De morbis vulgaribus, lib. i, p. 948.

De partibus animalium, lib. iii, cap. i.

Ctesias, of Cnydus, wrote various works, somewhat earlier than Aristotle; one of which, the History of India, is very interesting, but also contains not a few fables.

This, as well as other errors of Aristotle, we shall find repeated throughout the lapse of centuries by many authors, Galen not excluded, who, in fact, by the authority of his name, gave them valid confirmation.

The distinction between arteries and veins was, at that time, not yet well known, though we already find, in this passage of Aristotle, allusion made to the relations between the teeth and the bloodvessels.

According to the testimony of Celsus, a very serious author and in every way worthy of belief, Herophilus and Erasistratus dissected not only corpses, but also living men, namely, malefactors consigned to them by the kings of Egypt, in order that they might make researches into the normal conditions of the organs during life, and their mode of functioning. See Cornel. Cels., De re medica, lib. i, Preface.

Cœlii Aureliani de morbis acutis et chronicis, lib. viii, Amstelædami, 1755, Pars ii, lib. ii, cap. iv, De dolore dentium.

Herophilus et Heraclides Tarentinus mori quosdam detractione dentis memoraverunt.

Arretium, Cære, Clusium, Cortona, Fæsulæ, Falerii, Pisæ, Russellæ, Tarquinii, Vetulonia, Volaterræ, Volsinii.

Deneffe, La prothèse dentaire dans l’antiquité, p. 51.

Dr. Cigrand in his book The Rise, Fall, and Revival of Dental Prosthesis, after having spoken of the Phœnician dental appliance described in Renan’s work, adds: “There are scores of specimens of Phœnician dental art in home collections and also at the Columbian World’s Fair.” However, until these specimens of Phœnician dental art are described and their origin is exactly known, their authenticity will always remain a matter of doubt. [Cigrand is in error. The specimens he speaks of were mainly imagined.—W. H. TRUEMAN.]

Deneffe, op. cit., pp. 60, 61.

Deneffe, op. cit., p. 63.

Plinius, lib. xxix, cap. v.

This article forms part of the tenth table. The Law of the Twelve Tables was lost, but citations and passages are to be found in Cicero and in the works of other Roman jurisconsults, and by the aid of these it has been possible to reconstruct, at least in part, this very ancient code of laws. See Dionysii Gothofredi, Corpus juris civilis. Amstelodami, 1663; and also Thesaurus juris romani cum prefat. Ottonis, Tome iii, Trajecti ad Rhenum, 1733.

Josef Serre, Zahnarznei kunst, Berlin, 1804, p. 6.

Geist-Jacobi, Geschichte der Zahnheilkunde, p. 26.

See note, p. 15, Hist. Relations of Medicine and Surgery, Allbutt. (C. M.)

A. Corn. Celsi de Medicina libri octo, Patavii, MDCCXXII.

Celsus, lib. i, Preface.

Wine with honey.

A species of herb (all-heal).

Peucedanum officinale, hog’s fennel.

A species of wild grape thus called because it is red like minium (vermilion).

Species of mineral. [An impure copper sulphide.—E. C. K.]

Condensed juice of the seeds of the momordica elaterium, a bitter, irritating, and drastic substance.

According to De Giorgi (Sinonimia chimico-farmacotecnica, Milan, 1889), scissile alum is one of the many names for blue vitriol or sulphate of copper.

Here is meant the paper made of papyrus and called in Latin charta.

Trisulphide of arsenic.

Celsus did not know of the upper maxillary bones as distinct bones. The same may be said of the other bones of the head. Celsus speaks of the osseous sutures and openings, but not of the different bones of the skull and face.

C. Plinii Secundi, Historiæ Mundi, lib. vii, cap. ii.

Lib. xxiv, cap. cxi.

Lib. xi, cap. lxiii.

Lib. xi, cap. lxiv.

Cap. cvi.

Dipsacus fullonum.

Cap. cviii.

Lib. xxviii, cap. ii.

Lib. xxviii, cap. xi.

Lib. xxviii, cap. xiv.

Ibid., cap. xxvii.

Ibid., cap. xxix.

Ibid., cap. xlix.

Ibid., cap. lxxviii.

Lib. xxix, cap. ix.

Lib. xxix, cap. x.

Lib. xxix, cap. xi.

Lib. xxx, cap. viii.

Lib. xxx, cap. ix.

Lib. xxx, cap. xlvii.

Lib. xxxi, cap. xlv, xlvi.

Lib. xxxii, cap. xiv.

Trygon pastinaca, a large fish whose tail is armed with sharp and strong bones.

A measure equal to 0.274 liter.

Lib. xxxii, cap. xlviii.

A kind of lignite, now called jet.

Ignatius, because he has white teeth, is always laughing; if he be present at the felon’s trial, whilst the counsel is moving all to tears, he laughs; he laughs even when everyone is mourning at the funeral pyre of a dutiful son, whilst the mother is weeping for her only child. He laughs at everything, everywhere, and whatever he be doing; this is his weakness, which methinks is neither polite nor elegant. Wherefore, I must tell thee, O good Ignatius, even if thou wert a citizen of Rome, or a Sabine, or of Tibur, or one of the thrifty Umbrians, or of the fat Etruscans, or wert thou a black and large-toothed Lanuvin, or a Transpadane, if I may speak of my own people, or belonging to any people that cleanly wash their teeth; even then I would not have thee be always laughing; for nothing is more silly than a silly laugh. Now, O Celtiberian, in thy Celtiberian land, each is accustomed, with the water he has himself emitted, to rub his teeth and gums. Wherefore the cleaner are thy teeth, the more surely stale dost thou accuse thyself of having drunk.

Rerum geographicarum libri. Lutetiæ Parisiorum, 1620. Lib. iii, p. 164; quippe qui urina in cisternis inveterata laventur, eaque cum ipsi, tum eorum uxores dentes tergant; quod Cantabros facere et eorum confines ajunt (Carabelli, Systematisches Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde, Wien, 1844, i, 12).

Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde, Berlin, 1848, ii, 412.

Medio recumbit imus ille qui lecto, Calvam trifilem segmentatus unguento, Foditque tonsis ora laxa lentiscis; Mentitur, Esculane; non habet dentes.

Lentiscum melius; sed si tibi frondea cuspis Defuerit, dentes penna levare potest.

Antiq. du Bosphore au Musée de l’Ermitage, pl. xxx, 8 et 9 (Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines, par Daremberg, Saglio, etc.).

Mittheilung. d. antiq. Gesellschaft in Zürich, xv, pl. xi, 32 (Daremberg and Saglio, ibid.)

Caylus, vol. vi, pl. cxxx, 5.

Dentifricium ad edentulam: Quid mecum est tibi? me puella sumat, Emptos non soleo polire dentes.

Lib. xii, epig. xxiii.

Dentibus atque comis, nec te pudet, uteris emptis. Quid facies oculo, Lælia? non emitur.

Nostris versibus esse te poetam, Fidentine, putas, cupisque eredi? Sic dentata sic videtur Ægle, Emptis ossibus, indicoque cornu. (Lib. i, epig. lxxii.)

Lib. ix, epig. xxxviii.

Nec dentes aliter quam serica nocte reponas.

Horat. Sat. viii, lib. i.

Eximit aut reficit dentem Cascellius ægrum.

Suffire autem oportet ore aperto alterci semine carbonibus asperso, subinde os colluere aqua calida; interdum enim quasi vermiculi quidam eiciuntur.

Gum of the cedar tree.

Dentifricium, quod splendidos facit dentes et confirmat, chap. xi, lix.

A Roman measure of capacity, equal to a little more than half a liter.

The origin of the theriac, according to what Galen writes in his book De antidotis, is to be traced back to Mithridates, King of Pontus, who lived from the year 132 to the year 63 B.C. This king, patron of Art and Science, was, for his times, an eminent toxicologist. By making experiments on condemned criminals he sought to discover by what drugs the action of the various poisons, both mineral and vegetable, and those inoculated by the bites of poisonous animals might be counteracted. He afterward mixed the various antidotes together for the purpose of obtaining a remedy that might prove a preservative against the action of any poison whatever. This universal remedy, the receipt of which was carried to Rome by Pompey, the conqueror of that great king, was named mithridatium, after the name of him who had composed it. Andromachus modified the mithridate; he took away certain ingredients and added others, reducing the number of them from about eighty to sixty-five. The principal modification was that of introducing into the composition of this drug the flesh of the viper; wherefore, Galen is of the opinion that the theriac (so called from the Greek word therion, a noxious animal) was more efficacious than the mithridate against the bite of the viper. The theriac still exists in the French pharmacopeia, although considerably simplified. In every 4 grams it contains 5 centigrams of opium.

A species of solanaceæ of the Physalis genus, probably the Physalis alkekengi.

Galeni de compositione medicamentorum secundum locos, liber v.

J. R. Duval, Recherches historiques sur l’art du dentiste chez les anciens, Paris, 1808, p. 19. (See Carabelli, p. 13.)

Galen admits three kinds of nerves: soft or sensitive nerves, originating from the brain; hard or motor nerves, originating from the spinal marrow; medial nerves, motor-sensitive, originating from the medulla oblongata.

Galen distinguishes seven pairs of cerebral nerves; his third pair corresponds to the trigeminus.

Galeni de usu partium corporis humani, lib. xvi.

Galeni de compositione medicamentorum secundum locos, lib. v.

Medicus, chap. xix.

Trigonella fœnum græcum, a papilionaceous plant.

Under the name of root, the ancients meant also the neck of the tooth.

Swallow, I tell thee, as this water will not be again in my mouth, even so my teeth will not ache for the whole year.

The cure of teeth affected by warm painful disease; according to Adamantius the sophist.

Ætii tetrabibl., ii, sermo iv, cap. xxvii.

Ibid., cap. xxxi.

Ætii tetrabibl., ii, sermo iv, cap. xix.

Ibid., i, sermo iv, cap. ix.

Ibid., ii, sermo iv, cap. xxiv.

Tetrabibl., ii, sermo iv, cap. xxv.

Ibid., cap. xxvi.

Pauli Æginetæ de re medica, lib. vi, cap. xxvii.

Lib. vi, cap. xxviii.

Ibid., cap. ix.

Ibid., cap. xxix.

Rasis opera, Venetiis, 1508.

Haly Abbas Pract., lib. v, cap. lxxviii.

Ibid., cap. xxxiii.

Serapionis practica, Venetiis, 1503.

Avicennæ opera in re medica, Venetiis, 1564.

Abulcasis de Chirurgia, lib. i, cap. xix, p. 47; Latin translation by Channing with the Arabic text in front, Oxford, 1778.

Cap. xx, p. 47.

Cap. xxi, p. 49.

Zegi was the name given by the Arabs to blue vitriol.

Lib. ii, cap. xxviii, p. 181.

Lib. ii, cap. xxix, pp. 181 to 183.

This great Mahommedan surgeon was, it seems, very religious. His book begins with the words: “In the name of the merciful God, Lord perfect in goodness,” and almost every chapter ends with “If God so wills,” and the like.

These two manuscript codices are found in the Bodleian Library at Oxford.

Lib. ii, cap. xxx, p. 185.

The Arabic word used by the author means more precisely “those who apply cupping glasses.” Channing has translated it by tonsores, barbers.

An advice already given by Celsus.

Lib. ii, cap. xxxi, p. 191.

Silly barbers.

Lib. ii, cap. xxxi, p. 187.

Lib. ii, cap. xxxii, p. 193.

Lib. ii, cap. xxxv, p. 197.

Lib. iii, cap. iv, p. 545.

“The son of Zachariah Arazi compounds a medicine to assist the extraction of the teeth. ℞—Pyrethrum, colquintida root and the bark of the mulberry root, the seed and leaves of almezeron, huruc, and yellow arsenic, milk of alscebram or pieces of it, ground very thoroughly with vinegar; then pour some of it over bdellium and halasce, of each, equal parts, dry and dissolve in strong vinegar and make trochisi of it, and with them anoint the roots of the tooth from hour to hour; this facilitates the extraction of it.

“There is also another medicine with which one fills the decayed tooth and breaks it: ℞—Seeds of almezeron and milk of alscebram compounded with liquid pitch, and fill with it the decayed tooth. Another one: ℞—Bauras, bark of the willow, of each, one part; yellow arsenic, two parts; compound with honey and place it upon and around the tooth and immediately extract it.

“The fat of the green frog which lives upon the trees breaks teeth which are anointed with it the same as when you anoint them with milk of alscebram or titimallo, and similarly also the milk of celso with yellow arsenic.”

In this connection it is also interesting to note that the ancient Arabian medical writers referred to the red sulphide of arsenic or realgar as sandarach. The term Sandarach was clearly used by these writers to designate two different medicaments—one the gum-vernix, exudate of the Juniper tree, and which we now know as Sandarach gum. They also apply the term to red arsenic, as above stated. Avicenna clearly distinguishes between the two kinds of Sandarach, and says with regard to the gum-vernix or Juniper Sandarach that it is the best of all known remedies for toothache. While, as shown by Dr. Guerini, many of the medicaments used as topical applications to facilitate the extraction of teeth were wholly without any possible effect of that character, it cannot be doubted that the application of arsenical preparations, such as those referred to by Mesue, could not fail to set up an arsenical necrosis about the roots of the tooth, rendering it loose and easy of removal, but necessarily with the disadvantage of producing a dangerously extensive necrosis of the tissues.

Mesue Vulgar.—Impresso in Venitia per Cesaro Arrivabeno Venitiano a di vinti octubrio, mille cinquecento e vintiuno.

Delle Medicini Particulare, Libro Quarto, Capitolo XLI.—E. C. K.]

Joannis Mesue opera, Venetiis, 1562.

Sprengel, Geschichte der Chirurgie, Part II, p. 279.

Linderer, Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde, Berlin, 1848, ii, 403.

Bruni Chirurgia magna.

Sprengel, Geschichte der Chirurgie, Part II, p. 280.

Sprengel, loc. cit.

Sprengel, loc. cit.

La Grande Chirurgie de Guy de Chauliac, chirurgien maistre en médecine de l’Université de Montpellier, composée en l’an 1363, revue et collationnée sur les manuscrits et imprimés latins et français par E. Nicaise, 1890.

Of these copies, twenty-two are written in Latin, four in French, two in Provençal, three in English, one in Netherlandish (Dutch), one in Italian, and one in Hebrew.

Nicaise, La Grande Chirurgie de Guy de Chauliac, Second Chapitre: De l’Anatomie de la face et de ses parties, p. 47.

Here, as elsewhere, is preserved the old orthography of the text.

Nicaise, p. 711.

Teeth may be produced not only in infancy, but also at a later age.

Nicaise, p. 205.

Pietro of Albano (1250 to 1316), the writer of many books, among which one bearing the title of Conciliator differentiorum philosophorum et præcipue medicorum, is often quoted by Guy de Chauliac and by many others under the name of Conciliator.

Nicaise, p. 505.

Appropriatæ barbitonsoribus et dentatoribus.

In one Latin manuscript of 1461 instead of dentator we already find the word dentista.

Nicaise, p. 506. To make clear the meaning of these names, the following must be noted: The rasoirs (rasoria) were instruments with one cutting edge alone, which were used in performing any kind of incision. Raspatoria (râpes, i. e., rasps) signified almost certainly scrapers, not rasps. The spatumes were instruments with one or two cutting edges, of various shapes, but usually small. Esprouvettes (Latin, probæ) were the sounds or probes. Scalpra means scalpels, but in this case has especially the meaning of déchaussoirs, gum lancets. Terebelli (French, Tarières) are the trepans or perforators.

Nicaise, p. 507.

By the word apostema, Guy de Chauliac, and many other writers, indicate every pathological condition in which the normal elements of the tissues are separated from one another, by a humorous or gaseous gathering, or by any phlogistic or neoplastic formation. The word signifies, in Greek, removal, just like the Latin word abscessus. In fact, these two terms were often used as synonyms; but at other times the word apostema had a wider meaning, and included, besides the abscess, the phlegmon, the furunculus, the anthrax, erysipelas, herpes, and other dermal affections, especially the pustulous ones, edema and other serous gatherings, subcutaneous emphysema and other gaseous gatherings, glandular tumefactions, cysts, benignant and malignant tumors.

De la dent esbranlée et affoiblie, Nicaise, p. 509.

“De l’humidité qui amollist le nerf et le ligament.”

Evidently the author speaks of a “little gold chain,” because, as he is not versed in the practice of dentistry, he does not know that it was a simple gold wire which was used for keeping loose teeth firm. A small chain as thin as a thread could not be possibly made, and would even then be excessively weak.

This name was first given to medicaments containing gall-nuts, then, by extension, also to compound remedies not containing such substance, and to which was given the name of aliptæ, v. Nicaise, p. 677.

According to Nicaise, the Cyperus esculentus (in French, “souchet”) is here referred to.

In the Latin text: Buccelletur cum scalpro et lima.

Here lavement means mouth wash, not injection.

Cum raspatoriis et spatuminibus radantur.

Treatise vi, doctrine i, chap. viii: “Des membres qu’il faut amputer,” etc., Nicaise, p. 435.

According to Joubert several solanaceæ had this name, among others Solanum nigrum and Solanum somniferum (Physalis somnifera L.), which probably corresponds to the Strychnos hypnoticus of Dioscorides.

Valesci Philonium, etc.; Francofurti MDXCIX, cap. lxiv, De dolore dentium, p. 195 et seq.

Plant belonging to the order of the Polygonaceæ.

“Materia lapidea paullatim abradatur ferro et dentifriciis partim mundificativis, et partim stypticis. Deinde colluantur denies sæpe vino albo, et fricentur sale torrefacto.” Cap. lxvii, De colore dentium præter naturam, p. 202.

“Quoniam, licet ex parte corrosi sint, attamen dolore sedato masticationem iuvant, et alios firmiores reddunt.” Appendices, p. 205.

“Ossa fiunt ex spermate et sanguine menstruo; dentes autem ex sanguine, in quo remansit virtus spermatis.” Appendices, p. 205.

Petri de Largelata chirurgiæ libri sex, Venetiis, 1480.

Bartolomæi Montagnanæ Consilia, Venetiis, 1497.

Johannis Platearii Salernitani practica brevis, Lugduni, 1525.

Joannis Arculani commentaria in nonum librum Rasis ad regem Almansorem, etc., Venetiis, 1542.

This Arabian word was used to indicate the last molars.

“Regimen autem implendo dentem corrosum est, ut impleatur in causa calida cum frigidis, et in frigida cum calidis. Secundo, ut non impleatur cum labore et vehementia addente in dolore, et ex propriis est gallia cum ciperis aut cum mastiche, et eligantur ex suprascriptis, calida aut frigida secundum opportunitatem, in contrarium dyscrasiæ dentis, sed ubi non fuerit multus recessus a mediocritate impleatur cum foliis auri.” Cap. xlviii, p. 195.

In the Venetian edition (1542), however, all the figures which Arculanus inserted in his work are found in the beginning of the book, in a single table, together with the indication of the use to which each single instrument was destined.

Alexandri Benedicti Veronensis de re medica opus, lib. vi, de affectibus dentium.

Opera domini Joannis de Vigo in chyrurgia. Lugduni, 1521, lib. ii, tract. iii, cap. xiv, fol. 40.

Lib. v, cap. v, De doloribus dentium, fol. cxvii to cxix.

Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde, Berlin, 1848, ii, 406.

Geist-Jacobi, Geschichte der Zahnheilkunde, p. 80.

A religious order of knights, established toward the close of the twelfth century, viz., during the third crusade. The original object of the association was to defend the Christian religion against the infidels, and to take care of the sick in the Holy Land.

Geist-Jacobi, Geschichte der Zahnheilkunde, p. 82.

Geist-Jacobi, p. 88.

Albert von Haller, Bibliotheca chirurgica, i, 190.

Nuetzlicher Bericht, wie man die Augen und das Gesicht schaerfen und gesund erhalten, die Zaehne frisch und fest erhalten soll. Würzburg, 1548.

See Giornale di Corrispondenza pei dentisti, 1895, xxiv, 289.

Joannis Arculani. Commentaria, Venetiis, 1542, cap. xlviii, De dolore dentium, p. 192.

“The first dental book in the German language” (see Giornale di Corrispondenza pei dentisti, loc. cit.).

A Latin translation of the French name Du bois.

De humani corporis fabrica, libri septem.

De humani corporis fabrica libri septem, cap. xi, De dentibus, pp. 40 to 42 (complete edition of the works of Vesalius, published at Leyden in 1725).

Lib. i, cap. xlii, p. 141.

From gena, a cheek.

Blandin, Anatomie du système dentaire, Paris, 1836, p. 19.

Portal, Histoire de l’anatomie et de la chirurgie, tome i, p. 545.

Observationes anatomicæ, p. 39, et seq.

In utero duodecim dentes formantur in malis, et totidem in maxilla (in the uterus are formed twelve teeth in the upper jaw and as many in the lower). Fallopii Gabrielis observationes anatomicæ, Venetiis, 1562, p. 39.

This sharp reproof and accusation of ignorance are made for the benefit of the immortal anatomist Andreas Vesalius, to the number of whose adversaries Eustachius likewise belonged. What unjust fury of party passion!

Chap. xviii, p. 54.

Chap. xxii, p. 65.

Chap. xxiii, p. 70.

Chap. xxv, xxvi.

Chap. xxvii, xxviii.

The inferior orifice of the foramen incisivum.

It is superfluous to say that these cases are unreal and simply dependent upon erroneous observations; for instance, in the case of the second molar being extracted before the erupting of the third, the second molar figured as, and supposed to be, the latter, when, finally, the wisdom tooth appeared, it was believed to be the last molar renewed. It is no rare thing, also, in these days, not only for unprofessional persons, but also for medical practitioners, to fall into errors of this kind, especially because, in similar cases, the wisdom tooth, having but a limited space in which to erupt, is in the habit of filling the void left by the second molar, where it meets with less resistance.

Page 93.

Œuvres complètes d’Ambroise Paré, accompagnées de notes historiques et critiques, par J. F. Malgaigne, Paris, 1840, vol. i, p. 231.

The lower molars, being seated on the roots and not suspended like those of the upper jaw, are not in want of so many roots to assure their stability.

Vol. ii, p. 307.

... if they are divided, shaken, or separated from their alveoli or little cavities, they must be reduced into their places and should be bound and fastened against those that are firm with a thread of gold, silver, or flax. And they must be held thus until they are quite firm and the callus is formed and have become solid.

Lib. xv, ch. xvi, vol. ii, p. 443.

Lib. xv, cap. xxvii, vol. ii, p. 448.

A man, worthy of being believed, has assured me that a certain princess having had a tooth taken out, immediately had it replaced by another supplied by one of her ladies, which took root, and after a time she masticated with it as well as she had done with the former one.

Lib. xv, cap. xxviii.

I will here tell a story of a master barber living at Orleans, named maistre François Louys, who had the honor of pulling a tooth better than any one else, so that on Saturdays many country folks having toothache came to him to have them pulled out, which he did very dexterously with a pelican, and when he had done, threw it on a bench in his shop. Now he had a new servant, Picard, tall and strong, who wanted to pull teeth like his master. It happened that whilst the said François Louys was dining, a villager wanting a tooth pulled, Picard took his master’s instrument and tried to do like him, but instead of taking out the bad tooth, he knocked and tore out three good ones for him, who, feeling great pain and seeing three teeth out of his mouth, began to cry out against Picard, but he, to make him hold his peace, told him not to say a word about it and not to shout so, because if his master came he would make him pay for three teeth instead of one. Now the master, hearing such a noise, came out from table to know the cause of it and the reason of the quarrel, but the poor peasant fearing the threats of Picard and still more after enduring such pain being made to pay a threefold fee by the said Picard, was silent, not daring to reveal to the master this fine piece of work of the said Picard; and thus the poor bumpkin went away, and for one tooth that he had thought to have pulled, he carried away three in his pouch and the one that hurt him in his mouth.”

For which reason I advise those who would have their teeth pulled to go to the older tooth-pullers, and not to the younger ones who will not yet have recognized their shortcomings.”

An old French word meaning perhaps hippopotamus.

Jacobi Hollerii medici parisiensis omnia opera practica, Genevæ, 1635, lib. ii, p. 117, et seq.

Blandin, Anatomie du système dentaire, Paris, 1836, p. 25.

Hoann Jac. Weckerus, medicinæ utriusque syntaxes, ex Græcorum, Latinorum, Arabumque thesauris collectæ, Basilea, 1576.

Donati Antonii ab Altomari medici ac philosophi neapolitani Ars Medica, Venetiis, 1558, cap. xli, p. 190.

Collezione d’osservazioni e riflessioni, vol. iii, oss. 84, p. 374.

Hieronymi Capivacci Patavini opera omnia, Venetiis, 1617, edit. sexta, lib. i, cap. liii; de affectibus dentium, p. 515.

Lib. ii, cap. v, de lue venerea, p. 712.

Petri Foresti, Alcmariani, opera omnia quatuor tomis digesta, Rothomagi, 1653.

Histoire de l’anatomie et de la chirurgie, Paris, 1770.

Hémard has omitted translating this passage, probably because he did not well understand it.

Hieronymi Fabricii ab Aquapendente opera chirurgica, Lugduni Batavorum, 1723, cap. xxxii, p. 451.

Cap. xxxiii, p. 455.

Cap. xxxiv, p. 456; de instrumentis extrahendis dentibus idoneis.

Cap. xxxv, p. 457.

Cap. xxx, de gingivarum chirurgia, p. 450.

Joannis Heurnii Ultrajectini de morbis oculorum, aurum, nasi, dentium et oris, liber Raphelengii, 1602, cap. xi, de dentium et oris passionibus, p. 79.

De aureo dente maxillari pueri Silesii, Lipsiæ, 1595.

Martini Rulandi, Nova et in omni memoria inaudita historia de aureo dente, Francofurti, 1595.

Liddelius, Tractatus de dente aureo pueri Silesiani, Hamburg, 1626.

“Herr Balthazer Caminæus sends Greeting:

“For your letter, most kind Herr Doctor Caselius, in which you explicitly desired me to thank (my) colleagues for their good wishes, ‘wedding wishes,’ and to inform you as to the ‘Golden Tooth,’ I have long been in debt to you—not that I intended to leave your letter unanswered, but because no messengers presented themselves. Now that I have found one, I announce that I have obeyed your commands. As for the ‘Golden Tooth,’ I ought not to hide from you that we have more than once marvelled at your shrewdness, in that you are so anxious to ascribe the devices of wickedness and the tricks (fakes) of cunning to Nature. For it was no portent, only a deception and pure cheat, so that unless some Lemnian (Prometheus or Vulcan) should come to their aid, these acute authors will, nay, already are, a by-word to those who are more cautious and not so prone to believe. For the ‘Golden Toothed’ boy, according to the account brought thither by many persons, both by letter and oral report, some of whom had themselves seen this wonder, hailed from a village near Schwidnitz in Silesia, and had been so trained by his swindling father or master, that, at his will, whenever in any assembly of men, some very simple and illiterate persons desired to see the tooth and had paid the fee, for the rascals made great gains, he would open his mouth wide and allow himself to be touched. But if educated men and those who seemed likely to make more careful scrutiny and experiment on any point, presented themselves, he contorted his countenance, remained silent, and simulated a kind of madness, the idea being that he permitted himself to be examined at stated times only when the conditions allowed. Now, the tooth was covered with a plate, lamina (or layer), skilfully wrought of the best gold, and the gold was let down so deep into the gum that the cheat was not observed. However, as the plate was sometimes rubbed with a touch-stone as a test and was daily worn down by chewing, the real tooth at last began to appear. Of this fact a certain nobleman got an inkling, came to the place pretty drunk, and demanded that the tooth should be shown him, when the young fellow, at his master’s word, kept silent, the nobleman struck his dagger into the boy’s mouth, wounding him so badly that the aid of a surgeon had to be called, and so the deception was fully exposed.

“Thus the Herr Baron Fabianus, in Crema, at present Rector Magnificus of our University, told me the story in full, and those inhabitants of the place who have scholarly tastes maintain it to a man. The author of the fraud, if I remember aright, was said to have taken refuge in flight, the boy to be in chains.

“Our Pelargus, who is a native of Schwidnitz, can inform you more fully. I have often heard from him the same facts which I am writing. Farewell, and laugh in safety as much as you please at those sagacious authors.

“FRANKFORT, December 31, 1595.”

Elsewhere it is stated that the boy who was the possessor of the “Golden Tooth” was born December 22, 1586. As Horst’s Treatise appeared in 1595, the Silesian boy was probably not over seven or eight years of age. We also find that the “Golden Tooth” was a lower molar, and upon the left side, and further, that there was no molar posterior to it.—E. C. K.]

Illustrious Father, do not believe too much in the color.—[Virgil, Ec. ii, 16.]

Joh. Stephani Strobelbergeri, thermiatri cæsarei emeriti, etc., de dentium podagre, seu potius de odontagra, doloreve dentium, tractatus absolutissimus, in quo, tam doloris istius mitigandi rationes, quam dentium sine et cum ferro artificiose extrahendorum varii modi, theoretice ac practice proponuntur, in medicorum ac chirurgorum quorumvis gratiam. Lepsiæ, 1630.

In Latin, gutta, that is, drop.

Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde, Berlin, 1848, ii, 422.

Geschichte der Zahnheilkunde, p. 101.

Arnauld Gilles, La fleur des remèdes contre le mal des dents, Paris, 1622.

Remèdes contre le mal des dents, Paris, 1633.

Sprengel, Geschichte der Chirurgie, Part II, p. 293.

Guilhelmi Fabricii Hilandi opera omnia, Francofurti ad Moenum, 1646, Centuria I observatio xxxviii, p. 33.

Cent. iv, obs. xxi, p. 302.

The most important of Fabricius Hildanus’ works consists of six centuriæ (hundreds) of remarkable cases, published by the author in successive epochs, and which were afterward reunited under the title of Observationum et curationum chirurgicarum centuriæ sex.

Cent. v, obs. xxvii, p. 406.

G. F. Hildani, opera omnia, Epist. ad J. Rheterium, p. 1010.

Joannis Sculteti, Ulmensis, armamentarium chirurgicum, Francofurti, 1666, Plates X, XI, XII, XXXII.

Giovanni Battista Montano (1488 to 1551), of Verona, Professor of Medicine at Padua.

It is marvellous that an intelligent physician should have lent faith to such a story, related, too, by such a woman, never reflecting that the daily use of sulphuric acid for the space of thirty years, that is, about 11,000 applications, instead of curing and beautifying bad teeth, would certainly rather have had the effect of totally destroying the denture of even a mastodon.

Lazari Riverii, opera medica omnia, Genevæ, 1737; Praxeos medicæ liber sextus, cap. i; De dolore dentium, cap. ii; De dentium nigredine et erosione.

Nicolai Tulpii, Amstelodamensis, Osservationes medicæ, Amstelodami, 1685, lib. i, cap. xxxvi, p. 68; cap. xlix, p. 90.

Sprengel, Geschichte der Chirurgie, vol. ii, pp. 294, 299.

Sprengel, op. cit., p. 297.

Blandin, Anatomie du système dentaire, Paris, 1836, p. 26.

Blandin, op. cit., p. 27; Portal, Histoire de l’anatomie et de la chirurgie, Paris, 1770, vol. iii, p. 495.

Blandin, op. cit., p. 26; Portal, op. cit.

Totus dens primum inclusus est folliculo seu membrana tenui ac pellucida non secus ac granum in arista.

Bouillet, Précis d’histoire de la médecine, p. 221.

Bouillet, op. cit., p. 222.

Friderici Ruyschii observationum anatomico-chirurgicorum, centuria, Amstelodami, 1691; Portal, op. cit., vol. iii.

Portal, op. cit., vol. iii.

A. C. Abbott, The Principles of Bacteriology, Philadelphia, 1905, p. 19.

Anatome ossium, Romæ, 1689.

Portal, vol. iv, p. 111; Blandin, p. 28.

Jean Guichard Duverney, Mémoire sur les dents, Paris, 1689.

Blandin, op cit.; Portal, vol. iii, p. 495.

Blandin, p. 31.

On Some New Observations of the Bones and the Parts Belonging to Them, London, 1691. The accurate description given by Havers of the canals containing the nourishing vessels of the bone has caused these canals to be known, even up to the present day, by the name of “Haversian canals.”

Portal, vol. iv, p. 134; Blandin, p. 31.

De morbis acutis infantum, London, 1689.

Sprengel, Geschichte der Chirurgie, vol. ii, p. 298.

Meekren, Observationes medico-chirurgicæ, cap. xv, p. 84.

Op. cit., cap. xxviii, p. 120.

Sprengel, vol. ii, p. 298.

Sprengel, loc. cit.

Soolingen’s Manuale operatien der chirurgie, Amsterdam, 1684.

Sprengel, op. cit., p. 300.

Dissertation sur les dents, à Paris Chez Denys Thierry, MDCLXXIX.

Portal, op. cit., vol. iii, p. 361.

Purmann’s Wundarzenei, Halberstadt, 1684, Part I, chap. xxxii.

New and very useful practice of all that which belongs to the diligent barber; composed by Cintio d’Amato.

The art of beautifying the human body was comprised by the ancients among the many and various parts of the medical art, under the name of decorative medicine. The barbers considered themselves members of the medical class, as practitioners of decorative medicine and in a certain degree also of surgery.

In a chapter entitled “Of the Excellence and Nobility of the Barber’s Office,” Cintio d’Amato speaks of several barbers of that period, who were in great repute by their writings, or by the high offices with which they were invested, or by honors received from princes and sovereigns. Among the writers, Tiberio Malfi, barber of Montesarchio, deserves mention; he published, in 1626, a book entitled The Barber, written in excellent style, and giving proof of solid literary culture, and of much erudition. This work treats of all that concerns the barber’s art (decorative medicine, bleeding, etc.). In it, however, there is absolutely nothing about the treatment of the teeth or their extraction; and this constitutes a valid confirmation of our own opinion, that is, that the dental art was not at that time in any way in the hands of the barbers.

Portal, vol. iii, p. 618.

Antonii Nuck operationes et experimenta chirurgica, Lugduni Batavorum, 1692.

Caroli Musitani opera omnia, pp. 121 to 128, Venetiis, 1738.

J. Drake, Anthropologia nova, London, 1707.

J. M. Hoffmann, Disquisitiones anatomico-pathologicæ, Altorf, 1713, p. 321.

Probably through the nose.

H. Meibomii de abscessum internorma natura et constitutione discursus. Dresdæ et Lipsiæ, 1718, p. 114. (This edition was published after the author’s death, which took place in 1700.)

St. Yves, Nouveau traité des maladies des yeux, 1722, p. 80.

Sprengel, Geschichte der Chirurgie, vol. ii, p. 301. Carabelli, Systematisches, Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde, vol. i, p. 60.

This work was published in 1690.

Here one also verifies the absurdities pronounced by those who, not being dentists, but merely general practitioners or surgeons, still risk speaking on dental subjects.

Dionis, Cours d’opérations de chirurgie, Paris, 1716, p. 507 and following.

Carmeline was a most able surgeon-dentist. We learn this from a passage in Pierre Fauchard’s book (Le Chirurgien Dentiste, Préf., p. 13). As we shall see, the author praises him very highly and laments his not having written any book making known the results of his long experience.

Sprengel, Geschichte der Chirurgie, vol. ii, p. 305.

Traité complet des opérations de chirurgie, par Mons. de Lavauguyon, Paris, 1696, p. 644.

Der beym aderlassen und Zahn-ausziehen Geschickten Barbiergesell, Leipsic, 1717.

De dentium dolore, Altdorf, 1711.

Schelhammer wrote a dissertation “on the cure of toothache by touch,” De odontalgia tactu sananda, Kiel, 1701. In the same year and in the same city, another pamphlet, by B. Krysingius, was written on the same subject. (See Crowley, Dental Bibliography, p. 13.)

Sprengel, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 311.

Joseph Linderer, Handbuch der Zahnheilkunde, vol. ii, p. 129.

Sprengel, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 367; Carabelli, op. cit. p. 65.

Sprengel, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 310.

Sprengel, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 309.

Sprengel, loc. cit.

Sprengel, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 310.

Le Chirurgien Dentiste ou Traité des Dents, où l’on enseigne les moyens de les entretenir propres & saines, de les embellir, d’en réparer la perte & de remédier à leurs maladies, à celles des Gencives & aux accidens qui peuvent survenir aux autres parties voisines des Dents. Avec des Observations & des Réflexions sur plusieurs cas singuliers. Ouvrage enrichi de quarante-deux Planches en taille douce. Par Pierre Fauchard, Chirurgien Dentiste à Paris.

Deuxième édition, revue, corrigée et considérablement augmentée, à Paris, 1746.

Experts pour les Dents. This was probably the title which was bestowed in the relative diploma on those who passed the examination in question.

We have not been able to find any work in which particular records of Fauchard’s life are given, and hence do not know to which of the other arts he had dedicated himself.

Vol. ii, p. 366.

Page 21.

Pages 73, 74.

Vol. i, p. 131.

Page 142.

De la génération des vers dans le corps de l’homme, Paris, 1700.

Vol. i, p. 143.

Page 149.

Chap. ix, p. 154.

Dames illustres, vie d’Elizabeth, p. 179.

Page 161.

Page 165.

Page 167.

Liquid ammonia.

Subcarbonate of ammonia.

Chap. x, p. 169.

Page 407.

Chap. xii, p. 183.

Chap. xiii, p. 185.

Chap. xiv, p. 194.

Chap. xv, p. 205.

Chap. xvi.

Chap. xvii to xxi.

Chap. xxiii, p. 282.

Page 330.

Page 331.

Page 368.

Page 370.

Page 383.

Page 376.

Chap. xxxi, p. 391.

Page 397.

Page 411.

Page 418.

Chap. xxxviii, p. 481.

Vol. ii, chap. ii.

Chap. iii.

Chap. iv.

Chap. v.

Vol. ii, p. 71.

Vol. ii, p. 77.

Vol. ii, p. 78.

Ibid.

Chap. vii.

Vol. ii, p. 80.

Vol. ii, chap. viii, p. 87.

Chap. ix, p. 117.

Speaking of transplantation, he says: “On voit par des expériences journalières que des dents transplantées d’un alvéole dans l’alvéole d’une bouche différente se sont conservées plusieurs années fermes et solides sans recevoir aucune altération, et servant à toutes les fonctions auxquelles les dents sont propres.” (Vol. ii, p. 187.)

Page 188.

Vol. ii, p. 192.

Vol. ii, chap. xiii, p. 215.

Vol. ii, pp. 217 to 224.

Vol. ii, p. 225.

Vol. ii, p. 229.

Chap. xvi, pp. 252, 255.

Vol. ii, chap. xvii, p. 260.

Vol. ii, chap. xxiv, p. 339.

Vol. ii, p. 340.

Vol. ii, p. 353.

Jean de Diest, An hæmorrhage ex dentium evulsione chirurgi incuria lethalis? Paris, 1735. David Vasse, Hæmorrhagia ex dentium evulsione, chirurgi incuria lethalis, Paris, 1735.

M. Bunon, Sur un prejugé très-pernicieux, concernant les maux de dents qui surviennent aux femmes grosses, Paris, 1741.

M. Bunon, Essai sur les maladies des dents, Paris, 1743. Expériences et démonstrations pour servir de suite et de preuves à l’essai sur les maladies des dents, Paris, 1746.

Abhandlung von Zahnkrankheiten, etc., Strassburg, 1754.

A Practical Treatise upon Dentition or the Breeding of the Teeth in Children.

Essai d’Odontotechnique, ou Dissertation sur les Dents Artificielles.

Sprengel, Part ii, p. 319.

Journal de Médecine, 1756.

L. H. Runge. De Morbis sinuum ossis frontis, maxillæ superioris, etc., Rintel, 1750.

Sprengel, Part ii (?), p. 322.

Nouveaux éléments d’Odontologie, contenant l’anatomie de la bouche, ou la description de toutes les parties qui la composent, et de leur usage; et la pratique abregée du dentiste, avec plusieurs observations, par M. Lécluse, Chirurgien dentiste de Sa Majesté le Roi de Pologne, etc., Paris, 1754 (vol. in 12mo of pages viii-222 with six plates).

Abhandlung von den Zähnen des menschlichen Körpers und deren Krankheiten, 1756.

Geist-Jacobi, p. 164.

Die eingebildeten würmer in Zähnen, Regenburg, 1757.

The several details of the plate are designated as follows:

Fig. I. The supposed worms, with single and double tails, or actually seed buds of the henbane driven out by heat, natural size.

Fig. II. Kidney-shaped seed of the henbane, natural size, without seed buds.

Fig. III. Another such seed, natural size, with the pith being driven out in bow-shape.

Figs. IV and V. Slightly magnified supposed entrails of the tooth worms, actually the inner basis substance for the development of the seed lobes.

Fig. VI. Portion of the skin and driven out supposed entrails of the tooth worms, strongly magnified: (aa) skin still attached; (b) supposed entrails.

Fig. VII. Seed same as Fig. II, magnified: (a) external pellicle; (b) seed bud.

Fig. VIII. Seed of Fig. III, magnified: (aa) external pellicle; (b) node; (c) seed bud driven out in bow-shape.

Figs. IX, X, and XI. Three kinds of supposed tooth worms, magnified; the lettering corresponds in all three: (a) head; (b) brown spot or mouth; (c) body; (d) apparent opening or anus; (ee) single or double tail; (ff) brown spot of the tail; also an apparent opening.

Fig. XII. Representation of the utensils and the mode in which they are arranged during the application of the supposed remedy against tooth worms: (a) earthen pot; (b) opening visible on one side; (c) opening in the bottom; (dd) iron passing through the two side openings, on which the wax balls (containing henbane seeds) are laid inside the pot; (e) smoke arising through the opening in the top, which is directed into the mouth; (ff) bowl of water in which the pot is set, into which the supposed worms fall and in which they are found after the cure.

It would seem not at all improbable that the inhalation of vapors arising from heated henbane seeds might in some cases, e.g., of odontalgia from pulpitis, produce a sedative effect by the action of the hyoscyamine given off. Assuming that the method possessed even a slight therapeutic value, that factor in connection with the apparently tangible evidence of the existence of tooth worms which it afforded to the ignorant, makes the method a most interesting example of the way in which superstition and ignorance about medical matters are kept alive and sustained by a very slight increment of truth.

Another interesting reference to the use of henbane seeds for the cure of toothache by fumigation as found in an old Saxon manuscript of the ninth or tenth century, a translation of which is published in Leechdoms, Worthcunning, and Starcraft of Early England, vol. ii, p. 51, a collection of documents illustrating the history of science in England before the Norman conquest, published under direction of the Master of the Rolls. The reference is as follows:

“For tooth wark, if a worm eat the tooth, take an old holly leaf and one of the lower umbels of hartwort and the upward part of sage, boil two doles (that is, two of worts to one of water) in water, pour into a bowl and yawn over it, then the worms shall fall into the bowl. If a worm eat the teeth, take holly rind over a year old, and root of Carline thistle, boil in so hot water! Hold in the mouth as hot as thou hottest may. For tooth worms, take acorn meal and henbane seed and wax, of all equally much, mingle these together, work into a wax candle and burn it, let it reek into the mouth, put a black cloth under, then will the worms fall on it.”—E. C. K.]

Recueil périodique d’observations de Médecine, Chirurgie, etc., par Vandermonde, Paris, 1757, Tome vii, p. 256.

Recherches et observations sur toutes les parties de l’art du dentiste, 2 vols., Paris, 1757.

Sur les dépôts du sinus maxillaire.

Soins faciles pour la propreté de la bouche et pour la conservation des dents, Paris, 1759.

Vol. x, pp. 47 to 148.

Traité des dépôts dans le sinus maxillaire, des fractures et des caries de l’une et de l’autre mâchoire, Paris, 1761.

Essais sur la formation des dents, comparée avec celle des os, suivis de plusieurs expériences tant sur les os que sur les parties qui entrent dans leur constitution, Paris, 1766.

Traité des maladies et des opérations réellement chirurgicales de la bouche et des parties qui y correspondent, suivi de notes, d’observations, et de consultations interessantes, tant anciennes que modernes, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1778.

Réflexions et éclaircissements sur la construction et les usages des rateliers complets et artificiels.

Die Zahnheilkunde, Erlangen, 1851, p. 398.

Von der Wirkung der elektrischen Erschütterung im Zahnweh.

Geist-Jacobi, p. 165.

Neue Versuche zu Curirung der Zahnschmerzen vermittelst eines magnetischen Stahles, Königsberg, 1765.

F. E. Glaubrecht, De odontalgia, Argentorati, 1766.

Journal de Médecine, 1767, p. 265.

Jos. G. Pasch, Abhundlung aus der Wandarznei von den Zähnen, etc., Wien, 1767.

Th. Berdmore, A treatise on the disorders and deformities of the teeth and gums, London, 1768.

Einleitung zur nöthigen Wissenschaft eines Zahnarztes, Wien, 1766.

Abhandlung von der Hervorbrechlung der Milchzähne, Wien, 1771.

J. Linderer, vol. ii, p. 431.

Geist-Jacobi, p. 166.

Gedanken über das Hervorkommen und Wechseln der Zähne, 1768.

Carabelli, p. 91.

A treatise on the disorders and deformities of the teeth and gums, London, 1768.

See The Rise, Fall, and Revival of Dental Prosthesis, by B. J. Cigrand, p. 148.

Carabelli, p. 91.

Carabelli, p. 93; Lemerle, Notice sur l’histoire de l’art dentaire, p. 117.

J. Aitkin, Essays on several important subjects in surgery, London, 1771.

Sprengel, vol. ii, p. 348.

Sprengel, p. 350.

Bromfield, Chirurgical observations and cases, London, 1773.

Le dentiste observateur, Paris, 1775.

Vollständige Anweisung zum Zahn-ausziehen, Stendal, 1782.

Theden, Neue Bemerkungen und Erfahrungen, Berlin, 1782, part second, p. 254.

J. van Wy, Heelkundige Mengel stoffen, Amsterdam, 1784.

Journal de Médecine, 1791, tomes 86, 87.

Sprengel, p. 356 to 357.

Odontologia, ossia Trattato sopra i Denti.

Benjamin Bell, System of Surgery, 1783 to 1787, vol. iii.

Medical Transactions of the College of Physicians of London, 1783, vol. iii, p. 325.

Memoirs of the London Medical Society, 1787, vol. i.

August Gottlieb Richter, Anfangsgründe der Wundarzneikunst, vol. ii (1787) and vol. iv (1797).

Praktische Darstellung aller Operationen der Zahnarznekunst, Berlin, 1803 and 1804.

Chapter xlii.

Uebersicht der Chirurgischen Instrumente.

Ploucquet, Primæ lineæ odontitidis, sive inflammationis ipsorum dentium, Tubingæ, 1791; Kappis, Primæ lineæ odontitidis, etc., Tubingæ, 1794.

Storia naturale di un nuovo insetto, Firenze, 1794.

Der anfrichtige Lahnarzt.

Without comment!

Principia systematis chirurgiæ hodiernæ.

The anatomical fact alluded to by the author, far from presenting itself very often, as he says, is of rare occurrence, and cannot be held in account for establishing a general operative rule.

Sprengel, pp. 372, 373.

Hirsch, Praktische Bemerkungen über die Zähne und einige Krankheiten derselben, Jena, 1796.

Sprengel, pp. 376, 377.

For all that regards Bunon’s life and writings we have availed ourselves of the excellent historical work of A. Barden, “Un précurseur: Bunon,” a communication presented to the Geneva Session of the International Dental Federation (August, 1906).

Expériences et démonstrations, p. 13.

Ibid., p. 60.

Lettre sur la prétendue dent œillère.

Sur un préjugé très pernicieux, concernant les maux de dents qui surviennent aux femmes grosses.

Essai sur les maladies des dents, où l’on propose les moyens de leur procurer une bonne conformation dès la plus tendre enfance, et d’en assurer la conservation pendant tout le cours de la vie.

Expériences et démonstrations, avertissement, p. xix.

Expériences et démonstrations faites à l’Hôpital de la Salptêrière et à St. Côme, en presence de l’Académie Royale de Chirurgie, pour servir de suite et de preuves à l’Essai sur les maladies des dents.

Essay, p. 127.

F. Maury. Traité complet de l’art du dentiste, d’après l’état actuel des connaissances, 2 vols., Paris, 1828.

Exposé de nouveaux procédés pour la confection des dents dites de composition, par M. Dubois Faucou, Paris, 1808.

Rapport sur les dents artificielles terro-metalliques, Paris, 1808.

INDEX.

Abbott, A. C., 237

Abulcasis, 86, 125

Abyssinia, negroes of, file incisors into points, 43

Acoluthus, Johann, 240

Acupuncture, 38

Adamantius, 116, 117

Advertisements, 245

Ægina, Paul of, 219

Æsculapius, 45, 46

Ætius of Amida, 117, 170

Age of animals judged by the teeth, Aristotle on, 62

Aitkin, John, 317

Alcock, James, 348

Ali Abbas, 122

Altomare, Donato Antonio, 200

Alveolar pyorrhea, 96, 237

Andromachus the Elder, 106, 113

Andry, 269, 309

Anesthetic, 149

Antrum of Highmore, 186, 233, 249, 250, 257, 282, 304, 310, 311, 313, 318, 320, 325, 330, 333

Aphthæ, Celsus on, 84

Apollonius, 92, 113

Appolonia, Saint, 209

Aquapendente, Fabrizio of, 207

Arabians, 121

Aranzio Giulio Cesare, 201

Arcagatus, 77

Archigenes, 65, 106, 113

Arcoli, Giovanni of (Arculanus), 153, 168, 199

Argelata, Pietro of, 151

Aristotle, 53, 61, 64

Arnemann, J., 331

Arsenic, 35, 85, 122, 125, 138, 152, 157

Asclepiades, 80

Asklepiadi, priests of the temple of Æsculapius, 45, 46

Astringent mouth washes, 97, 115, 116, 122, 153

Atmospheric conditions, influence on dental maladies, 57, 116, 247

Aurelianus, Celius, 46, 65, 113, 114

Auzeki, Pierre, 317

Avenzoar, 139

Avicenna, 84, 123

Babylonians, treatment of sick by the, 18

Bacteria, 237

Barbers, 86, 130, 132, 139, 144, 159, 162, 166, 169, 188, 240, 242, 243, 244, 245, 255

Barden, A., 340

Bartholin, Thomas, 232, 235

Bass, Heinrich, 259

Bell, Benjamin, 324

Belzoni, G. B., on Egyptian dentistry, 27

Benedetti, Alessandro, 157, 187

Benedictus of Faenza, 203

Berdmore, Thomas, 315, 316

Bertin, J., 304

Bible, reference to teeth in the, 32, 33

Bidloo, Gottfried, 239

Birds, teeth of, 63

Blum, Michael, 164

Blumenthal, K. A., 337

Bodenstein, Adam, 205

Bordenare, Thomas, 313

Bourdet, 309

Brahmins, care of the teeth among the, 42

Bridge work, 297 Etruscan attempts at, 76, 101

Bromfield, W., 318

Brunner, Adam Anton, 315

Bruno of Longobucco, 140

Bruschi, Etruscan dental appliances in Museum of Count, 73

Bücking, 321

Bunon, Robert, 301, 337

“Calendar of dentition,” 315

Callisen, Heinrich, 333

Camindus, Balthasar, 215

Campani, Antonio, 323, 327

Capivacci, Gerolamo, 201

Carabelli, 157, 317, 321

Carbonate of lime, ancient dentifrice mentioned by Pliny, 94

Caries, dental, 24, 110, 122, 147, 251, 269, 319, 335

Carmeline, 253, 261, 283

Cascellius, first dentist mentioned by name, 102

Castellani collection, Rome, Etruscan appliances in, 76

Catullus, 97

Cauteries, dental, 328

Cauterization, 25, 40, 85, 107, 111, 118, 126, 138, 152, 212, 227, 246, 289, 310

Caylus, 99

Celius Aurelianus, 46, 65, 113

Celsus, 65, 80, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 102

“Cement” filling, 122, 240 of Guillemeau, 253

Channing, John, 126

Charlatans, 159, 162, 277, 310, 316

Chauliac, Guy de, 146

Chemant, Nicholas Dubois de, 329, 344

Chinese, anatomical notions of, 39 dentistry among the, 34

Chopart, 322

Cigrand, 47, 68, 316

Cintio d’Amato, 242

Clasps, 303

Clauder, Gabriel, 232

Cleanliness of the teeth among the Romans, 97, 106, 107

Coiter, Volcherus, 200

Coition, toothache from, 35

Cold applications, harmful to the teeth, 61

Colombo, Matteo Realdo, 177

Côme, Frère, 318

Compressor of Foucou, 321

Condamine, 314

Corneto, museum of, Etruscan appliances in, 71, 72, 73

Cos, temple of, medical records in, 18, 46, 48

Courtois, 321

Cowper, William, 234, 249

Cremation among the ancients, 69

Criton, 113

Croce, Giovanni Andrea della, 201

Cron, Ludwig, 255

Crowley’s “Dental Bibliography,” 253, 256

Crown, artificial, 296, 315 gold, 217, 303

Ctesias of Cydnus, 62

Customs of primitive peoples, 42

Dabry, P. P., “La médecine chez les Chinois,” 34

Dalli Osso, archeologist, 78

Damocrates, Servilius, 106

Daremberg, “Histoire des sciences médicales,” 80, 99

De Lavauguyon, 253, 255

Décorative medicine, 244

Dekkers, Friederich, 241

Delphi, temple of Apollo at, 46, 114

Deneffe, “La prothèse dentaire dans l’antiquité,” 67, 75, 102

Dental appliance, Etruscan, found at Tarquinii, 71 near Teano, Italy, 79 at Valsiarosa, 70 art among the ancient Germans, 162 the Etruscans, 67 the Romans, 77, 102 first beginnings of, 17 practised by specialists in ancient Egypt, 25 caries, 110, 122, 147, 251, 269, 319 irregularities, 280, 290, 303, 320 maladies given in Ebers’ papyrus, 21 surgery not mentioned in Ebers’ papyrus, 25 and surgical instruments of the Romans, 86 terminology found in Vesalius, 176

Dentateurs, 199

Dentator, 144, 147

Dentiduces, 226

Dentifrices, 35, 38, 51, 87, 93, 94, 96, 97, 105, 112, 124, 141, 148, 154, 247, 322

Dentine, structure of, 237, 319

Dentisculpia (toothpicks), 98, 226

Dentispices, 219

Dentist, the word itself, 102, 144 Cascellius the first, 102

Dentista, 144

Dentistry, condition of, before Fauchard, 260 in the middle ages, 121 as a true specialty, 255, 263

Dentists, examination of, 261, 339

Dentition, “Calendar” of, 315 third, 91, 143, 185, 199, 306

Dentures, complete, 298, 313, 336 porcelain, 344 spring, 299, 300

Deodato, Claudio, 224

Desault, 322

Deschapellement (uncrowning), 194, 204, 275

Diemerbroek, 235

Diest, Jean de, 301

Dionis, Pierre, 251

Dioscorides, 84

Dissection prohibited by the Koran, 121

Doctors’ shops in ancient Greece and Rome, 52

Drake, James, 249

Dubois de Chemant, Nicholas, 329, 344 Foucou, 346, 347 Jacques, 172

Duchâteau, 344

Duchemin, student of Fauchard, 260

Dufour, 309

Dupont, 223

Duverney, Jean, 238

Ears and the teeth, 54, 56, 94, 228, 236, 250, 315

Ebers’ papyrus, 19 George, on dental art of Egyptians, 28

Egypt, special doctors for the teeth in ancient, 26, 64

Egyptians, dental art among the, 19, 67 prescriptions of the, 21, 22, 23, 24

Eighteenth century, 255

Electricity, use of, for toothache, 314

Elevator of Lécluse, 305

Elevators, 133, 134, 305

Enamel, artificial use of, 301, 310 structure of dental, 238

Endelman, Julio, 205

English key, 257, 317

Epilepsy, 169

Epulis, 117, 118, 123, 127, 239, 251, 334

Erasistratus, 65

Erosion, dental, 302, 320, 337, 341

Etruscans, dental appliances of, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76 art among the, 67, 70 votive offerings of, 67

Eustachius, Bartholomeus, 178, 204

Examination of dentists, 261, 339

“Experts pour les dents,” 261

Extraction of teeth, 25, 45, 51, 64, 82, 86, 103, 108, 112, 114, 118, 122, 124, 128, 137, 141, 151, 152, 158, 160, 193, 210, 222, 240, 246, 252, 276, 292, 315, 321, 337 death from, 65, 114, 137, 139 of eye-teeth, 301, 339 pain after, 112 as a punishment, 139

Eyes and the teeth, 54, 89, 168, 246, 301, 304

Fabrizio of Aquapendente (Fabricius), 207

Fabry, Wilhelm (Fabricius Hildanus), 223

Fallopius, Gabriel, 177

Fauchard, Pierre, 255, 259

Filing of teeth by people of India, 42 by women of Sumatra, 43

Filling of teeth, 122, 147, 150, 151, 155, 159, 164, 199, 208, 240, 252, 256, 285, 309, 315, 320, 328

Fingers, extraction of teeth with the, 64

Fischer, Johann Bernhardt, 259

Fistulæ, dental, 22, 140, 152, 201, 203, 224

Fleurimond, 245

Follicle, dental, 177

Fontanella, Don Angelo, anecdote of, 104

Fonzi, 347

Forceps, cutting, 294 extracting, 46, 52, 86, 87, 114, 131, 157, 167, 207, 211, 226, 278, 292, 293, 325, 330, 334

Foreest, Peter, 157, 202

Foucou, 321, 346, 347

Fracture of lower jaw, 59, 137, 190, 342

Fractures and dislocations, Celsus on, 87

Fredericus, Rinaldus, 235

Frogs, use of, for dental maladies, 95, 107, 125, 138

Gaddesden, John, 140

Gagliardi, Domenico, 238

Gaillardot, Dr., researches in necropolis of Sidon, 29

Galen, Claudius, 52, 63, 65, 80, 82, 108, 109, 121

Garengeot, Croissant de, 257

Gebauer, Ernst Ferdinand, 259

Geist-Jacobi, 23, 59, 78, 102, 114, 157, 163, 166, 169, 220, 306, 311, 314

Genga, Bernardo, 235

Gerauldy, Fr. A., 302, 338

Gerbi, Ranieri, 332

“German key,” 257

Germans, dentistry among the, 161

Ghent, University of, Etruscan appliance in museum of, 74

Gilles, Arnauld, 222

Gingivitis, treatment of, by Galen, 111

Giovanni of Arcoli, 153, 168, 199 of Vigo, 159

Glaubrecht, F. E., 314

Gold appliances of the Etruscans, 71 of the Romans, 101 bands, mentioned in law of the Twelve Tables, 77 crown, 217, 303 fillings, 29, 156, 159, 164, 208, 252, 256, 285, 309, 315, 316, 329 teeth, substitution of, in Java, 42 in Macassar, 43 wire, use of, 30, 87, 135, 146

Golden tooth, story of the, 214

Göritz, Johann Adolph, 258

Gout, 219

Gräbner, C. A., 315

Grafenberg, Johann Schenck von, 202

Greek doctors in Rome, 79

Greeks, ancient appliance of the, 60 dentistry among the ancient, 45, 77

Griffon, J., 225

Guerhard, 344

Guillemeau, Jacques, 253

Gums, diseases of, according to Celsus, 84

Guy de Chauliac, 142

Haller, Albert von, 166

Harris, Walter, 239

Havers, Clopton, 239

Hebrews, dental affections rare among the ancient, 32

Hecker, A. F., 331

Heister, Lorenz, 255

Hémard, Urbain, 194, 203

Hemorrhage after extraction, 229, 231, 258, 301, 306, 321, 335 of the gums, 115, 157

Henkel, 318

Heraclides of Tarentum, 65, 113

Herodotus, 18, 25, 64

Herophilus, 65

Heurmann, Georg, 305

Heurn, Johann (Heurnius), 175, 212

Hieratic characters, Ebers’ papyrus in, 20

Highmore, Nathaniel, 186, 232

Hindostan, care of the teeth by the natives of, 42

Hindu dentists, primitive type of dental prosthesis by, 30

Hippias, anecdote from Herodotus on, 26

Hippocrates, 17, 18, 47, 108

Hirsch, Friedrich, 334

Histology, 236

Hoffmann, Johann, 249

Homer, refers to sons of Æsculapius, 45

Horace, false teeth mentioned in satire of, 102

Horst, Jacob, 214

Houllier, Jacques, 199

Hunter, John, 316, 318, 324

Hurlock, Joseph, 303

Hygiene of the mouth, 80, 87, 92, 106, 107, 127, 144, 153, 196, 230, 248, 266, 310, 330, 341

Hypoplasia, dental, 341

Immunity from toothache, 221

Implantation, 311

India, people of, customs relating to the teeth of, 42

Ingolstetter, Johann, 215

Ingrassia, Gian Filippo, 177

Instruments, 52, 128, 144, 151, 157, 167, 192, 201, 206, 207, 211, 226, 227, 241, 279, 284, 331 for extracting, 321, 323, 327 of gold, 251 of the Romans, 86

Iron, tooth of, 232

Irregularities, dental, 280, 290, 303, 320, 342

Jacobaens, Oligerus, 231

Java, substitution of gold teeth by people of, 42

Joachim, Heinrich, translation of Ebers’ papyrus by, 19

Jourdain, 311

Junker, Johann, 257

Key with changeable hooks, 326 English, 257, 317 of Garengeot, 257

Kircher, 217

Kirk, E. C., 28, 30, 43, 82, 83, 84, 96, 115, 118, 138, 164, 216, 307, 308

Klaerich, F. W., 314

Knights of the Teutonic Order, 163

Koran, dissection prohibited by the, 121

Lancets, gum, 195

Lancing of the gums, 198, 239, 257, 265, 303, 304, 312, 321, 322, 324, 331, 334, 336

Lanfranchi, 140

Lavini, 301

Law of the Twelve Tables, 69, 77, 78

Le Hire, 265

Lead for filling teeth, 285, 309, 320, 335

Lécluse, 257, 305

Leeuwenhoek, Antoni van, 237

Lemerle, 317

Lemorier, 313

Lentin, L. B., 314

Lentisk wood, toothpicks of, 98

Lepsius, opinion of, on Ebers’ papyrus, 20

Lettson, 329

Leucorrhea, 58

Leyden, Lucus van, 213

Liddel, Duncan, 216

Ligatures, Abulcasis on, 135

Linderer, Joseph, 27, 42, 98, 139, 162, 181, 220, 257, 313

Loder, 257

Longevity, influence of number of teeth on, 58

Lusitanus, Amatus, 229

Luxations of jaw, 88

Magnet, use of, for toothache, 314

Major, Daniel, 240

Malpighi, Marcello, 236

Manteville, 269

Marcellus, 115

Martial, epigrams of, 98

Martin, Benjamin, 241

Martinez, Francisco, 205

Massage, ancient practice of, 114

Massez, 313

Maxillary sinus, 186, 233, 249, 250, 257, 282, 304, 310, 311, 313, 318, 320, 325, 330, 333

Mechanical dentistry, first work on, 303

Medicine in ancient Eygpt, 19 decorative, 244

Medicine, most ancient work on, 19 sacerdotal, 17 special branches of, 103

Meibom, Heinrich, 250

Mercury, harmful effects of, 158, 202, 230

Mesue the younger, 137, 164

Mice, use of, for dental maladies, 36, 50, 93, 94, 97

Microörganisms, 237

Microscopes, 236, 237, 269

Middle ages, dentistry in the, 121

Minadous, Thomas, 232

Mineral teeth, 254, 329, 344, 348 waters of Carlsbad, 220

Models in dental prosthesis, 241, 306

Modern times, dentistry of, 161

Molinetti, Antonio, 234

Monavius, Petrus, 205

Monkey, dental system of, 63

Montagnana, Bartolomeo, 152

Montanus, Giovanni Battista, 230

Moraine’s verses on Fauchard, 260

Motte, G. M. de la, 258

Mouth mirror, 344 washes, 55, 97, 111, 265, 274

Mouton, 303, 309

“Moxa,” use of, by Chinese, 40

Mummery, J. R., 25, 29

Mummies, Egyptian, 27, 28, 49

Murphy, Joseph, 42

Museum of antiquities, Dresden, 162 (archæological) of Athens, 52 (archæological) of Florence, 70 of Corneto, 71, 72, 73 of Count Bruschi, 73 of Pope Julius, Rome, 70, 101 of University of Ghent, 74

Musitano, Carlo, 247

Nasal prosthesis, 256

Necrosis of lower jaw, 241 of the teeth, 56

Nerves of teeth, 109

Neuralgia, 224

Nicaise, E., 142

Nobile, Luigi, 78

Nomenclature, 88, 318

Nuck, Anton, 245

Number of teeth, 59, 109

Obturators, 197, 198, 211, 301, 310

Oceanica, dyeing the teeth black by races of, 42

Odontagogon, 46, 65, 114

Odontagra, 64

Odontalgia, 34, 38, 51, 92, 95, 103, 106, 107, 109, 111, 113, 124, 137, 141, 145, 150, 152, 154, 158, 190, 202, 219, 220, 221, 228, 247, 248, 271, 283, 314, 332

Odontitis, 331

Operative dentistry, Fauchard on, 284

Oribasius, 117

Orvieto, 69, 74

Papyrus of Ebers, 19

Paracelsus, 176

Paré, Ambroise, 188

Pasch, J. G., 314, 315

“Pastophori” treatment of sick by, 19

Paul of Ægina, 118

Peale, Charles W., 348

Pechlin, Nicolaus, 232

Pelican (extracting instrument), 157, 158, 167, 193, 206, 211, 226, 281, 290, 291, 292, 311, 323, 324, 330, 334

Perine, Geo. H., 27

Periodontitis, 122, 320

Petronius, 98

Peyronie, de la, 339

Pfaff, Philip, 305

Pfolsprundt, Heinrich von, 163

Phœnicia, ancient dental appliance found at Sidon, 29 influence of, on Etruscan dentistry, 67

Phœnician vase, with portrayal of dental operation, 47

Pietro of Albano, 144 of Argelata, 151

Pig, teeth of the, 62

Pincers, ligature, 295

Plaster models, 306

Plateario, Giovanni, 152

Pliny, 89, 102

Pluggers, 288

Pomaret, Denis, 223

Portal, 245

Poteleret, Alexandre, 262

Pregnancy, extraction of teeth during, 301, 339

Prescriptions, Chinese, 35 dental, of Hippocrates, 50 Egyptian, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24

Priesthood, ancient, treatment of sick by, 17

Primitive peoples, customs relating to teeth of, 42

Prosthesis, dental, 146, 211, 296

Prosthetic pieces, movable, 256

Pulp-capping, 306

Pulp, inflammation of, recognized by Archigenes, 107

Pumice stone in dentifrices, 96, 97, 141, 203

Purland, T., 28

Purmann, Matthias Gottfried, 241

Pyorrhea (alveolar), 96, 237

Quacks, 159, 162, 277, 310

Quill toothpicks mentioned by Martial, 98

Ranula, Abulcasis on the cure of, 137

Renan, “Mission de Phénicie,” 29

Replantation, 136, 191, 251, 281, 293, 305, 309, 316, 321, 334, 335

Rhazes, 84, 121, 122, 153

Riccio, Tommaso Antonio, 242

Richter, A. G., 329

Rivière Lazare (Riverius), 228

Rizagra (Greek forceps), 87

Romans, dental art among the, 77

Rome, Arcagatus the first Greek doctor in, 77

Rueff, 316

Ruland Martin, 215

Runge, L. H., 304

Ruspini, Bartholomeo, 343

Russel, 313

Ruysch, Friederich, 236

Ryff, Walter, 157, 161, 166

Saalburg, forceps found in ancient castle of, 114

Saliva, 331

Salmuth, Philip, 232

Sandwich Islands, natives of, sacrifice front teeth, 43

Satricum, example of gold crown work found at, 101

Saws, dental, used by Abulcasis, 136

Scalers, Abulcasis on use of, 127 of Fauchard, 285 of silver mentioned by Fabricius, 210

Schaffer, Jacob Christian, 306

Schelhammer, Christopher, 250

Schmidt, Prof. Emil, 29

Schultes, Johann (Scultetus), 226

Schulz, Gottfried, 232

Scorbutus, case of, mentioned by Hippocrates, 55

Scribonius Largus, 103

Scultetus, 226

Scurvy, 57, 237

Secrecy among dentists, 262

Senile decay, 186, 238

Serapion, 123

Serre, 47, 78, 330

Serres, 181, 217

Seventeenth century, dentistry in the, 218

Severino, Marco Aurelio, 227

Shops of doctors in ancient Greece and Rome, 52

Sidon, necropolis of, 29

Silesian child, golden tooth of the, 214

Silver, toothpicks of, mentioned in satire of Petronius, 98

Six, Martin, 231

Sixteenth century, dentistry in the, 161

Spiegel, Adrian (Spigelius), 235

Sprengel, “Geschichte der Chirurgie,” 139, 166, 223, 253, 257, 259, 304, 337

Sternberg, J. H., 337

Stockton, Samuel W., 348

Story of the Golden Tooth, 214

Strabo, 98

Strobelberger, Johann Stephan, 218

St. Yves, Charles, 250

Surgeon-dentist, 244, 339

Surgery, ancient, eminently conservative, 108

Surgical instruments deposited in the temples, 46

Sylvius, 172

Tagliacozzi, Gaspare, 226

Talmud, the, 32

Tartar, dental, 119, 127, 150, 151, 237, 244, 258, 275, 302, 342

Teano, Italy, prosthetic piece found near, 78

Teeth, artificial, Dionis on, 252 of the Etruscans, 70 mentioned by Martial, 100 opposition to use of, 241, 258 Paré on, 197, Romans, 78 care of the, See Hygiene of the mouth. among the Brahmans, 42 the Romans, 97 dignity and importance of the, 235 dyeing black, by married women of Japan, 43 by races of Asia and Oceanica, 42 red, by people of eastern India and Macassar, 43 gilding of the, in Sumatra, 43 of mummies, 28, 29, 49 names of, as given by Guy de Chauliac, 143 number of, indicated by Galen, 109 influence on long life of, 58 pivot, no evidence of Egyptian knowledge of, 29 Pliny on persons born with, 89 trepanning of, advised by Archigenes, 65

Terminology, dental, found in Vesalius, 176

Teske, J. G., 314

Theodorico Borgognoni, 140

Theriac, famous remedy of Andromachus, 106

Tin for filling teeth, 285, 329, 335

Tobacco, 220, 230

Tonsillitis, Celsus on, 83

Tooth brushes, 266, 334

Tooth of iron, 232 story of the golden, 214

Toothache, 35, 51, 80, 92, 103, 106, 107, 109, 113, 115, 126, 150, 190, 202 immunity from, 221

Toothpick and ear-picker of gold found in Crimea, 99

Toothpicks, 94, 98, 208

Transplantation, 282, 293, 303, 321, 329, 334, 335

Treatment of dental disorders by the Chinese, 35

Trephine, use of, by Archigenes, 108

Trueman, Wm. H., 68

Tulp, Nicolaus, 231

Uncrowning of teeth, 194, 204, 275

Urine, 35, 43, 97, 98, 274

Uxedu, painful swelling, referred to in Ebers’ papyrus, 20, 23

Valentini, Bernardo, 234

Valescus of Taranta, 149

Valsiarosa, dental appliance found at, 70, 72

Van Leeuwenhoek, Antonie, 237

Van Marter, J. G., 27

Van Meekren, Hiob, 239

Van Soolingen, Kornelis, 240

Van Wy, J., 322

Vasse, David, 301

Verduc, Jean, 253

Vesalius, Andreas, 172

Vigo, Giovanni of, 159

Virchow, 29

Votive offerings, dental, of Etruscans, 68 tables in ancient temples, 18, 46

Weapons, teeth of animals as, 62

Wecker, Johann Jacob, 200

Westphal, A., 304

Weyland, Fr. L., 318

White, Samuel S., 348

Wichmann, J. E., 336

Wildman, Elias, 348

Wilkinson, Sir Gardner, 28

Willich, 321

Wooffendale, Robert, 316

Worms, dental, 104, 125, 126, 141, 148, 150, 153, 158, 199, 203, 214, 220, 228, 229, 231, 232, 247, 268, 307, 309

Wurfbein, Paul, 241

Znamenski, 295

Zwinger, Theodor, 240