Part 69

Biological Periodicals.

Perhaps in no better way can the progress of biology in America be illustrated than by a brief survey of the origin and development of the more important biological journals. For it will be seen that these publications have become more numerous and more specialized as the science has advanced in specialization.

The early publications—which as is well known, treated mainly of the birds, mammals and other vertebrates, and of insects, crustacea and shells—consisted mainly of separate books or pamphlets, published by private subscription. After the establishment of the so-called Academies of Science, or of Arts and Sciences, toward the end of the eighteenth and in the first quarter of the nineteenth century, the reports of the meetings began to be published as periodical Journals, supported by the academies. In these publications, and in the Journal which was founded at the same time, appear papers on all branches of science, including zoology. As soon as zoology in America assumed its modern aspects through the influence of Louis Agassiz and his followers the earliest strictly zoological journals were established.

It should be noted, however, that the journals of the scientific and natural history societies were more or less fully devoted to zoological topics according to the nature of the activities of the members and correspondents. After the establishment of the Museum of Comparative Zoology by Louis Agassiz came the founding in 1863 of its Bulletin and later its Memoirs. These publications have continued to the present day as a standard of excellence for the reports of zoological investigations. In connection with the systematic work on mollusks, the American Journal of Conchology was established in 1865. The American Naturalist was founded in 1867 by four of Louis Agassiz’s pupils, Hyatt, Morse, Packard and Putnam. It was later edited by Cope as a leading periodical for the publication of biological papers, particularly those relating to evolution, and is at present devoted to evolutionary topics. It is now in the 52d volume of its new series.

With the awakened interest in comparative anatomy and embryology came the need for an American journal which should supply a means of publication for the reports of researches accomplished by the increasing number of workers in these fields. This need was fully met by the establishment of the Journal of Morphology in 1887. This publication, now in its 30th volume, has equalled the best European journals in the character of its papers. A few years later (1891) came the Journal of Comparative Neurology for the publication of investigations relating to the morphology and physiology of the nervous system and to nervous and allied phenomena in all groups of organisms. Twenty-eight volumes of this journal have been completed. The Zoological Bulletin was started under the auspices of the Marine Biological Laboratory in 1897 for the publication of papers of a less extensive nature and which could be more promptly issued than those in the Journal of Morphology where elaborate plates were required. After two years the scope of the Bulletin was enlarged to include botanical and physiological subjects. The name was correspondingly changed to the Biological Bulletin. Of this important periodical 33 volumes have been issued.

For the publication of papers on human and comparative anatomy and embryology, the American Journal of Anatomy was established in 1901, and is now in its twenty-third volume.

Meanwhile the trend of zoological interest was toward topics connected with the ultimate nature of biological phenomena. The meaning of these phenomena could be determined only by the experimental method. Researches in this field became more prominent and the adequate publication of the numerous papers required the establishment of a new journal in 1904. This was named the Journal of Experimental Zoology. It immediately took its place in the front rank of American zoological periodicals. Twenty-four volumes have been published.

In spite of the constantly increasing number of journals, the science grew faster than the means of publication. So crowded did the American journals become that long delays often resulted before the results of an investigation could be issued. This condition was met in part by the sending of many papers to be published in European journals (a necessity most discreditable to American zoology) and in part by the establishment of additional means of publication. Of the latter the Anatomical Record, now in its fourteenth volume, was begun in 1906 for the prompt publication of briefer papers on vertebrate anatomy, embryology and histology and for preliminary reports and notes on technique.

During the past few years has come a great advance in the experimental breeding of plants and animals. Problems in heredity and evolution have taken on a new interest since the importance and validity of Mendel’s discovery have been recognized. To meet this development of biology the journal Genetics was begun in 1916 for the publication of technical papers, while the Journal of Heredity, modified from the American Breeders Magazine, is devoted to popular articles on animal and plant breeding, and Eugenics.

On the whole, the science of zoology is now assuming a closer relation to practical affairs. Entomology, for example, is now represented by the Journal of Economic Entomology, of which 10 volumes have been issued since 1907. The Journal of Animal Behavior covers another practical field of research. The Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, starting in 1903, the American Journal of Physiology, and several other publications cover the physiological field. The Journal of Parasitology, established 1914, now in its fourth volume, is devoted to the interests of medical zoology. The Auk, now in the 34th volume of its new series (42d of old series), is the official organ of the American Ornithologists Union and is devoted to the dissemination of knowledge concerning bird life. The Annals of the Entomological Society of America, established in 1908, and now in its 10th volume, is one of several important entomological journals. The Nautilus, of which 28 volumes have been issued, is one of the more successful journals devoted to conchology. This list might be extended to include numerous other periodicals of importance, both technical and popular, which have been of great service in the various fields of biology.

In addition to these are the many volumes of systematic papers in the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, the practical reports in the Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission, the vast literature issued yearly by the various divisions of the United States Department of Agriculture, Public Health Service and other Governmental departments, while the list of publications by scientific societies, museums, and other institutes is constantly increasing and covers all fields of biological research.

At the present time facilities for the publication of research on any branch of zoology are as a rule entirely adequate. For this highly satisfactory condition the science is indebted to the support given five of its most important journals by the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology.

Biological Associations.

An important light on the history of biology in America can be thrown by a glance at the rise and development of societies or associations for the report and discussion of papers relating to that branch of science. In the first half of the nineteenth century natural history societies were formed in most cities and centers of learning. These were very important factors in the promotion of scientific research as well as in the diffusion of popular knowledge of living things. The aims and activities of twenty-nine such scientific societies, many of which were devoted especially to natural history, are described in one of the early volumes of the Journal (=10=, 369, 1826). The Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, dating from 1799, the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences from 1812, and the New York Lyceum of Natural History (in 1876 name changed to New York Academy of Sciences) from 1817 are among the oldest of those which still exist.

Of national institutions the American Philosophical Society was founded in 1743, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1780, and the National Academy of Sciences in 1863.

The American Association for the Advancement of Science, with its thousands of members, now has separate sections for each of the special branches of science. This great association was organized in 1848, as the successor of the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists. This was itself a revival of the American Geological Society which first met at Yale in 1819. Its meetings have given a great support to the scientific work of the country.

The American Society of Naturalists was founded in 1883. The original plan of the society was for the discussion of methods of investigation, administration and instruction in the natural sciences, but its program is now entirely devoted to discussions and papers of a broad biological interest. It also arranges for an annual dinner of the several biological societies and an address on some general biological topic.

In 1890, toward the end of the period in which morphological studies were being emphasized, the professional zoologists of the eastern states founded the American Morphological Society. This association held annual meetings during the Christmas holidays for the presentation of zoological papers. This name became less appropriate after a few years because of the gradual decrease in the proportion of morphological investigations owing to the greater attention being directed to problems in experimental zoology and physiology. Consequently the name was changed to the American Society of Zoologists. To be eligible for membership in this society a person must be an active investigator in some branch of zoology, as indicated by the published results.

The American Association of Anatomists includes in its membership investigators and teachers in comparative anatomy, embryology, and histology as well as in human anatomy. Many professional zoologists and experimental biologists present their papers before this society, or at the meetings of the American Physiological Society. The Entomological Society of America and the American Association of Economic Entomologists are large and active societies.

These national societies have been of great service in fostering a high standard of zoological research. A still more important service, though generally less conspicuous, is rendered by the journal clubs in connection with all the larger zoological laboratories, and by local scientific societies which are now maintained in all the larger centers of learning throughout the country. There are also specific societies for some of the different fields of biological work.

Biological Stations.

No insignificant factor in the development of biological science has been the establishment of biological stations where investigators, teachers and students meet in the Summer vacation for special studies, discussions and research. The most successful of these laboratories have been located on the seashore and here the study of marine life in Summer supplements the work of the school or university biological courses. The famous Naples Station was founded in 1870, and was shortly after followed by several others. Similar biological stations are now supported on almost every coast in Europe and in several inland localities.

The first such American school was established by Louis Agassiz at the island of Penikese on the coast of Massachusetts in 1873, succeeding his private laboratory at Nahant. During that Summer more than forty students gained enthusiasm for the work of future years. Unfortunately the laboratory so auspiciously started was of brief duration, for the death of Agassiz occurred in December of the same year, and the laboratory was discontinued at the end of the following Summer. Shortly afterward Alexander Agassiz equipped a small private laboratory at Newport, Rhode Island, and W. K. Brooks established the Chesapeake Bay Zoological Laboratory.

At this time the United States Fish Commission was engaged under the direction of Spencer F. Baird in a survey of the marine life of the waters off the Eastern Coast. Between 1881 and 1886 the Commission established the splendidly equipped biological station at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Both here and at the Fish Commission Laboratory at Beaufort, North Carolina, much work in general zoology as well as in economic problems is accomplished. These laboratories are designed particularly for specialists engaged in researches connected with the work of the Fish Commission.

A need was soon felt for a marine laboratory along broader lines, and one available to the students and teachers of the schools and colleges. To meet these requirements the Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory was started in 1887, as the successor to an earlier laboratory at Annisquam, and has since become a great Summer congress for biologists from all parts of the country. It is safe to say that no other institution has been of equal service in securing for biology the high plane it now occupies in American science. The leading spirit in the establishment of this laboratory and its director for many years was Charles O. Whitman.

Successful marine laboratories are located also at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island; at Harpswell, Maine; and at Bermuda. The Carnegie Institution maintains a laboratory at Tortugas Island, Florida, for the investigation of tropical marine life.

On the Pacific Coast marine laboratories are located at Pacific Grove and at La Jolla, California, and at Friday Harbor, Washington. Several other biological laboratories are open each Summer on our coasts, as well as a number of fresh-water laboratories on the interior lakes. There are also several mountain laboratories. The influence of these laboratories on American biology is immeasurable.

Natural History Museums.