Part 17

In the typical area of the Taconic system, i. e., in Rensselaer County, Emmons in 1844–1846 produced the fossils Atops trilineatus and Elliptocephala asaphoides. S. W. Ford, as stated above, later produced from the same general area many other fossils that he demonstrated to be older than the Potsdam sandstone. To this time he gave the name of Lower Potsdam, thus proving on paleontological grounds that at least some part of the Taconic system is older than the New York system, and therefore older than the Hudson River group of Ordovician age.

In 1888 Walcott presented his conclusions in regard to the sequence of the strata in the typical Taconic area and to the north and south of it. He collected Lower Cambrian fossils at more than one hundred localities “within the typical Taconic area,” and said that the thickness of his “terrane No. 5” or “Cambrian (Georgia),” now referable to the Lower Cambrian, is “14,000 feet or more.” He demonstrated that the Lower Cambrian is infolded with the Lower and Middle Ordovician, and confirmed Emmons’s statement that the former rests upon his Primary or Pre-Cambrian masses. Elsewhere, he writes: “To the west of the Taconic range the section passes down through the limestone (3) [of Lower and Middle Ordovician age] to the hydromica schists (2) [whose age may also be of early Ordovician], and thence to the great development of slates and shales with their interbedded sparry limestones, calciferous and arenaceous strata, all of which contain more or less of the Olenellus ... fauna.” He then knew thirty-five species in Washington County, New York (=35=, 401, 1888).

Finally in 1915 Walcott said that in the Cordilleran area of America there was a movement that brought about changes “in the sedimentation and succession of the faunas which serve to draw a boundary line between the Lower and Middle Cambrian series.... The length of this period of interruption must have been considerable ... and when connection with the Pacific was resumed a new fauna that had been developing in the Pacific was then introduced into the Cordilleran sea and constituted the Middle Cambrian fauna. The change in the species from the Lower to the Middle Cambrian fauna is very great.” He then goes on to show that in the Appalachian geosyncline there was another movement that shut out the Middle Cambrian Paradoxides fauna of the Atlantic realm from this trough, and all deposition as well.

Conclusions.—Accordingly it appears that everywhere in America the Lower Cambrian formations are separated by a land interval of long duration from those of Middle Cambrian time. These formations therefore unite into a natural system of rocks or a period of time. Between Middle and Upper Cambrian time, however, there appears to be a complete transition in the Cordilleran trough, binding these two series of deposits into one natural or diastrophic system. Hence the writer proposes that the Lower Cambrian of America be known as the Taconic system. The Middle and Upper Cambrian series can be continued for the present under the term Cambrian system, a term, however, that is by no means in good standing for these formations, as will be demonstrated under the discussion of the Silurian controversy.

The Silurian Controversy.

Just as in America the base of the Paleozoic was involved in a protracted controversy, so in England the Cambrian-Silurian succession was a subject of long debate between Sedgwick and Murchison, and among the succeeding geologists of Europe. The history of the solution is so well and justly stated in the Journal by James D. Dana under the title “Sedgwick and Murchison: Cambrian and Silurian” (=39=, 167, 1890), and by Sir Archibald Geikie in his Text-book of Geology, 1903, that all that is here required is to briefly restate it and to bring the solution up to date.

Adam Sedgwick (1785–1873) and R. I. Murchison (1792–1871) each began to work in the areas of Cambria (Wales) and Siluria (England) in 1831, but the terms Cambrian and Silurian were not published until 1835. Murchison was the first to satisfactorily work out the sequence of the Silurian system because of the simpler structural and more fossiliferous condition of his area. Sedgwick, on the other hand, had his academic duties to perform at Cambridge University, and being an older and more conservative man, delayed publishing his final results, because of the further fact that his area was far more deformed and less fossiliferous. In 1834 they were working in concert in the Silurian area, and Sedgwick said: “I was so struck by the clearness of the natural sections and the perfection of his workmanship that I received, I might say, with implicit faith everything which he then taught me.... The whole ‘Silurian system’ was by its author placed above the great undulating slate-rocks of South Wales.” At that time Murchison told Sedgwick that the Bala group of the latter, now known to be in the middle of the Lower Silurian, could not be brought within the limits of the Silurian system, and added, “I believe it to plunge under the true Llandeilo-flags,” now placed next below the Bala and above the Arenig, which at the present is regarded as at the base of the Ordovician.

The Silurian system was defined in print by Murchison in July, 1835, the Upper Silurian embracing the Ludlow and Wenlock, while the Lower Silurian was based on the Caradoc and Llandeilo. Murchison’s monumental work, The Silurian System, of 100 pages and many plates of fossils, appeared in 1838.

The Cambrian system was described for the first time by Sedgwick in August, 1835, but the completed work—a classic in geology—Synopsis of the Classification of the British Palæozoic Rocks, along with M’Coy’s Descriptions of British Palæozoic Fossils, did not appear until 1852–1855. Sedgwick’s original Upper Cambrian included the greater part of the chain of the Berwyns, where he said it was connected with the Llandeilo flags of the Silurian. The Middle Cambrian comprised the higher mountains of Cærnarvonshire and Merionethshire, and the Lower Cambrian was said to occupy the southwest coast of Cærnarvonshire, and to consist of chlorite and mica schists, and some serpentine and granular limestone. In 1853 it was seen that the fossiliferous Upper Cambrian included the Arenig, Llandeilo, Bala, Caradoc, Coniston, Hirnant, and Lower Llandovery. On the other hand, it was not until long after Murchison and Sedgwick passed away that the Middle and Lower Cambrian were shown to have fossils, but few of those that characterize what is now called Lower, Middle, and Upper Cambrian time.

Not until long after the original announcement of the Cambrian system did Sedgwick become aware “of the unfortunate mischief-involving fact” that the most fossiliferous portion of the Cambrian—the Upper Cambrian—and at that time the only part yielding determinable fossils, when compared with the Lower Silurian was seen to be an equivalent formation but with very different lithologic conditions. He began to see in 1842 that his Cambrian was in conflict with the Silurian system, and four years later there were serious divergencies of views between himself and Murchison. The climax of the controversy was attained in 1852, when Sedgwick was extending his Cambrian system upwards to include the Bala, Llandeilo, and Caradoc, a proceeding not unlike that of Murchison, who earlier had been extending his Silurian downward through all of the fossiliferous Cambrian to the base of the Lingula flags.

Dana in his review of the Silurian-Cambrian controversy states: “The claim of a worker to affix a name to a series of rocks first studied and defined by him cannot be disputed.” We have seen that Murchison had priority of publication in his term Silurian over Sedgwick’s Cambrian, but that in a complete presentation, both stratigraphically and faunally, the former had years of prior definition. What has even more weight is that geologists nearly everywhere had accepted Murchison’s Silurian system as founded upon the Lower and Upper Silurian formations. A nomenclature once widely accepted is almost impossible to dislodge. However, in regard to the controversy it should not be forgotten that it was only Murchison’s Lower Silurian that was in conflict with Sedgwick’s Upper Cambrian. As for the rest of the Cambrian, that was not involved in the controversy.

Dana goes on to state that science may accept a name, or not, according as it is, or is not, needed. In the progress of geology, he thought that the time had finally been reached when the name Cambrian was a necessity, and he included both Cambrian and Silurian in the geological record. The “Silurian,” however, included the Lower and Upper Silurian—not one system of rocks, but two.

It is now twenty-seven years since Dana came to this conclusion, at a time when it was believed that there was more or less continuous deposition not only between the formations of a system but between the systems themselves as well. To-day many geologists hold that in the course of time the oceans pulsate back and forth over the continents, and accordingly that the sequence of marine sedimentation in most places must be much broken, and to-day we know that the breaks or land intervals in the marine record are most marked between the eras, and shorter between all or at least most of the periods. Furthermore, in North America, we have learned that the breaks between the systems are most marked in the interior of the continent and less so on or toward its margins.

Hardly any one now questions the fact of a long land interval between the Lower Silurian and Upper Silurian in England, and it is to Sedgwick’s credit that he was the first to point out this fact and also the presence of an unconformity. It therefore follows that we cannot continue to use Silurian system in the sense proposed by Murchison, since it includes two distinct systems or periods. Dana, in the last edition of his Manual of Geology (1895), also recognizes two systems, but curiously he saw nothing incongruous in calling them “Lower Silurian era” and “Upper Silurian era.” It certainly is not conducive to clear thinking, however, to refer to two systems by the one name of Silurian and to speak of them individually as Lower and Upper Silurian, thus giving the impression that the two systems are but parts of one—the Silurian. Each one of the parts has its independent faunal and physical characters.

We must digress a little here and note the work of Joachim Barrande (1799–1883) in Bohemia. In 1846 he published a short account of the “Silurian system” of Bohemia, dividing it into étages lettered C to H. Between 1852 and 1883 he issued his “Système Silurien du Centre de la Bohème,” in eighteen quarto volumes with 5568 pages of text and 798 plates of fossils—a monumental work unrivalled in paleontology. In the first volume the geology of Bohemia is set forth, and here we see that étages A and B are Azoic or pre-Cambrian, and C to H make up his Silurian system. Etage C has his “Primordial fauna,” now known to be of Paradoxides or Middle Cambrian time, while D is Lower Silurian, E is Upper Silurian, F is Lower Devonian, and G and H are Middle Devonian. From this it appears that Barrande’s Silurian system is far more extensive than that of Murchison, embracing twice as many periods as that of England and Wales.

About 1879 there was in England a nearly general agreement that Cambrian should embrace Barrande’s Primordial or Paradoxides faunas, and in the North Wales area be continued up to the top of the Tremadoc slates. To-day we would include Middle and Upper Cambrian. Lower Cambrian in the sense of containing the Olenellus faunas was then unknown in Great Britain.

Lapworth, recognizing the distinctness of the Lower Silurian as a system, proposed in 1879 to recognize it as such, and named it Ordovician, restricting Silurian to Murchison’s Upper Silurian. This term has not been widely used either in Great Britain or on the Continent, but in the last twenty years has been accepted more and more widely in America. Even here, however, it is in direct conflict with the term Champlain, proposed by the New York State Geologist in 1842.

In 1897 the International Geological Congress published E. Renevier’s Chronographie Géologique, wherein we find the following:

│Upper or Silurian │Ludlowian (Murchison Silurian Period. │ (Murchison, restricted, │ 1839). │ 1835). │ „ │ „ │Wenlockian (Murchison │ │ 1839). „ │ „ │Landoverian (Murchison). ─────────────────┼──────────────────────────┼────────────────────────── „ │Middle or Ordovician │Caradocian (Murchison │ (Lapworth 1879). │ 1839). „ │ „ │Landeilian (Murchison │ │ 1839). „ │ „ │Arenigian (Sedgwick 1847). ─────────────────┼──────────────────────────┼────────────────────────── │Lower or Cambrian │ „ │ (Sedgwick, restricted, │Potsdamian (Emmons 1838). │ 1835). │ „ │ „ │Menevian (Salter and Hicks │ │ 1865). „ │ „ │Georgian (Hitchcock 1861).

Regarding this period, which, by the way, is not very unlike that of Barrande, Renevier remarks that it is “as important as the Cretaceous or the Jurassic. Lapworth even gives it a value of the first order equal to the Protozoic era.”

In the above there is an obvious objection in the double usage of the term Silurian, and this difficulty was met later on in Lapparent’s Traité by the proposal to substitute Gothlandian for Silurian. Of this change Geikie remarks: “Such an arrangement ... might be adopted if it did not involve so serious an alteration of the nomenclature in general use.” On the other hand, if diastrophism and breaks in the stratigraphic and faunal sequence are to be the basis for geologic time divisions, we cannot accept the above scheme, for it recognizes but one period where there are at least four in nature.

Conclusions.—We have arrived at a time when our knowledge of the stratigraphic and faunal sequence, plus the orogenic record as recognized in the principle of diastrophism, should be reflected in the terminology of the geologic time-table. It would be easy to offer a satisfactory nomenclature if we were not bound by the law of priority in publication, and if no one had the geologic chronology of his own time ingrained in his memory. In addition, the endless literature, with its accepted nomenclature, bars our way. Therefore with a view of creating the least change in geologic nomenclature, and of doing the greatest justice to our predecessors that the present conditions of our knowledge will allow, the following scheme is offered:

Silurian period. Llandovery to top of Ludlow in Europe. Alexandrian-Cataract-Medina to top of Manlius in America.

Champlain (1842) or Ordovician (1879) period. Arenig to top of Caradoc in Europe. Beekmantown to top of Richmondian in America.

Cambrian period. In the Atlantic realm, begins with the Paradoxides, and in the Pacific, with the Bathyuriscus and Ogygopsis faunas. The close is involved in Ulrich’s provisionally defined Ozarkian system. When the latter is established, the Ozarkian period will hold the time between the Ordovician and the Cambrian.

Taconic period. For the world-wide Olenellus or Mesonacidæ faunas.

Paleogeography.

When geologists began to perceive the vast significance of Hutton’s doctrine that “the ruins of an earlier world lie beneath the secondary strata,” and that great masses of bedded rocks are separated from one another by periods of mountain making and by erosion intervals, it was natural for them to look for the lands that had furnished the debris of the accumulated sediments. In this way paleogeography had its origin, but it was at first of a descriptive and not of a cartographic nature.